草鱼鱼鳞酶溶性胶原蛋白的提取及基本特性

利用胃蛋白酶从草鱼鱼鳞中提取酶溶性胶原蛋白(PSC)。并用氨基酸自动分析仪、SDS-PAGE电泳、DSC、FT-IR和圆二色谱对草鱼鱼鳞胶原蛋白的氨基酸组成、相对分子量、变性温度和结构进行了研究。试验结果表明:所提草鱼鱼鳞蛋白为典型的I型胶原蛋白;且至少含有2条α链,α1和α2链;DSC分析表明其变性温度为37.1℃。     

交联方法对草鱼皮胶原蛋白海绵生物学性能的影响

为探讨不同交联方法对草鱼皮胶原蛋白海绵材料性能的影响,实验以草鱼鱼皮为原料,提取、纯化胶原蛋白并制备胶原海绵材料.在此基础上,分别用紫外交联、热交联、戊二醛交联以及EDC/NHS交联方法处理胶原海绵,通过测定材料的交联度、热变性温度、拉伸强度和体外抗酶降解性能,比较了不同方法的交联效果.结果发现,提取所得的草鱼皮胶原蛋白为典型的Ⅰ型胶原;经不同方法交联处理后,海绵材料交联度依次为戊二醛(72.0％) ＞EDC/NHS(32.5％)＞热交联(29.9％)＞紫外交联(15.6％);与对照胶原材料相比,戊二醛处理后,胶原材料的热变性峰值温度(67.4℃)、最大拉伸强度(125.6 kPa)和体外抗酶降解性能均有显著提升(P＜0.05);EDC/NHS处理后,胶原材料的热变性焓显著提升(6.86 J/g),同时材料的拉伸强度(98.6 kPa)和体外抗酶降解性能也得到适度增加(P＜0.05).紫外交联和热交联对草鱼皮胶原材料性能的改善作用比较有限,并可能导致胶原分子的部分变性.红外光谱的分析结果表明,戊二醛处理可导致草鱼皮胶原三螺旋分子内产生新的共价键交联从而使材料性能改善,而EDC/NHS处理主要导致胶原分子间产生新的氢键交联并可提高胶原材料的稳定性.研究表明,戊二醛和EDC/NHS交联能有效提高胶原海绵材料的性能,而热交联和紫外交联对材料性能的改善作用非常有限.     

鲈鱼骨酸溶性和酶溶性胶原的性质比较

以鲈鱼骨为原料提取得到酸溶性胶原(ASC)和酶溶性胶原(PSC),对ASC和PSC的性质进行比较。粘度测定结果表明,ASC的变性温度25~30℃,PSC的变性温度为30~35℃;电泳结果表明,ASC和PSC都属于Ⅰ型胶原且纯度比较高;氨基酸分析结果显示,羟脯氨酸和脯氨酸含量ASC均低于PSC,氨基酸检测结果与粘度检测结果相一致。     

养殖花鳗鲡鱼皮胶原蛋白的特性分析

为了探究养殖花鳗鲡(Anguilla marmorata)鱼皮胶原蛋白的特性,利用胃蛋白酶结合酸抽提法提取花鳗鲡鱼皮胶原蛋白,SDS-PAGE电泳法展示胶原蛋白的电泳图谱,氨基酸分析仪测定胶原蛋白的氨基酸组成,分析胶原蛋白分子的紫外和红外光谱特征,用浊度实验和流变黏弹性实验探究胶原蛋白分子的体外自组装动力学特性。结果显示,花鳗鲡鱼皮胶原蛋白属于Ⅰ型胶原蛋白,氨基酸组成中甘氨酸、脯氨酸与羟脯氨酸三者的比值为8∶3∶2,胶原蛋白分子的最大紫外吸收峰出现在222.6 nm处,热变性温度28℃,红外光谱图和扫描电镜扫描结果图均表明经胃蛋白酶及酸溶得到的胶原蛋白保持了胶原原有的结构。胶原蛋白分子的体外自组装动力学曲线是含有迟滞期、成长期和稳定期的三阶段曲线。以上结果表明花鳗鲡鱼皮胶原具有接近淡水鱼皮胶原的特征。     

草鱼鱼皮中明胶提取工艺优化

研究了采用响应面分析方法从草鱼的鱼皮中提取鱼明胶的最佳工艺。考察了盐酸浓度、预处理时间、提取温度和提取时间对鱼明胶得率和凝胶强度的影响。经过响应面分析,得到从草鱼皮中提取明胶的最佳工艺为盐酸浓度1.19%(v/v),预处理24h,在52.61℃下提取5.12h,明胶的得率和凝胶强度分别为19.83%和267g,所得明胶的凝胶点和溶点分别是19.5℃和26.8℃。此外,草鱼皮明胶中的氨基酸组成中,脯氨酸和羟脯氨酸的总含量为19.47%。     

红藻糖苷的提取及其对草鱼鱼糜抗冻性能的影响

为探讨红藻糖苷的醇提工艺以及红藻糖苷对冷冻草鱼鱼糜蛋白变性作用的影响,首先采用响应面分析法对乙醇浓度、提取温度、时间和液料比4个因素进行优化,随后以冷冻鱼糜的盐溶性蛋白含量、巯基含量及肌原纤维蛋白Ca~(2+)-ATP酶活性等参数为指标,探测冷冻草鱼鱼糜在冷藏过程中添加红藻糖苷对蛋白质变性作用的影响。结果显示,红藻糖苷的最佳醇提条件为乙醇72.3%、提取温度60°C、时间4 h、液料比14∶1(m L/g),在此条件下的提取率为3.46%;抗冻性能结果显示,随红藻糖苷浓度升高,抗冻效果增强;以10%红藻糖苷处理冷冻鱼糜4周后,盐溶性蛋白含量和巯基含量分别比空白组高30.62%、32.80%,肌原纤维蛋白的Ca2+-ATP酶活性的下降率比空白组低37.51%,解冻失水率的增长率比空白组低133.07%。研究表明,红藻糖苷能有效延缓草鱼鱼糜肌原纤维蛋白的冷冻变性。     

鲤鱼对明胶表观消化率的测定

明胶是一种动物性蛋白质，它是猪、牛等动物的骨和皮胶原通过变性降解加工而成。明胶除了含有18种标准氨基酸外，还含有其他蛋白质所没有的羟基氨基酸。明胶蛋白质含量高，并含有高于淀粉类的普通盐粪及较丰富的硒、锶等微量元素。     

种青养鱼模式下的草鱼肌肉营养成分和品质特性

为探究种青养鱼养殖模式对草鱼肌肉营养成分和品质特性的影响,随机选取以种青喂草为主养殖模式下养殖的草鱼(生态草鱼)和投喂人工配合饲料进行养殖的草鱼(饲料草鱼)各16尾,测定其肌肉系水力和质构特性指标,以及肌肉常规营养成分、矿物元素、氨基酸和脂肪酸含量。结果显示,生态草鱼和饲料草鱼肝体比和空壳率无显著性差异;生态草鱼肌肉系水力指标中滴水损失显著低于饲料草鱼,冷冻渗出率不显著地低于饲料草鱼,失水率不显著地高于饲料草鱼,p H值无显著性差异;肌肉的硬度、弹性、凝聚性、胶黏性和回复性均无显著性差异;生态草鱼粗脂肪含量显著低于饲料草鱼,水分、灰分、粗蛋白含量均无显著性差异;生态草鱼P和Fe含量均显著高于饲料草鱼,Mg、Mn和Cr含量均极显著高于饲料草鱼;生态草鱼和饲料草鱼肌肉氨基酸组成基本一致,均含有17种氨基酸,其中人体必需氨基酸总量分别为6.85%和6.27%。生态草鱼必需氨基酸指数(EAAI)为76.07,而饲料草鱼为77.29,饲料草鱼略高于生态草鱼。生态草鱼和饲料草鱼肌肉均含19种脂肪酸,其中棕榈酸、花生四烯酸(ARA)、亚油酸(LA)、油酸、二十二碳六烯酸(DHA)和硬脂酸含量较高,为主要脂肪酸,而花生五烯酸(EPA)+DHA含量分别为8.95%和10.70%,且差异显著。研究表明,生态草鱼和饲料草鱼在肌肉质构特性方面无显著性差异,与饲料草鱼相比,生态草鱼具有肌肉系水力强、低脂肪和矿物元素含量高的特点。     

山泉流水与池塘养殖草鱼营养成分比较

为比较山泉流水和池塘养殖草鱼的品质区别,测定了体质量为1500~1750 g的两种方式养殖草鱼的基本营养、矿物元素、胶原蛋白、氨基酸和脂肪酸含量及肌肉抗氧化能力。测定结果表明,山泉流水养殖草鱼水分、粗脂肪、K和Na含量显著低于池塘养殖草鱼(P<0.05),粗蛋白、灰分、P、Ca、Mg、Cu、Zn、Fe、Mn和Se含量显著高于池塘养殖草鱼(P<0.05);山泉流水养殖草鱼肌肉不可溶性胶原蛋白含量和超氧化物歧化酶活力显著高于池塘养殖草鱼(P<0.05),丙二醛含量则显著低于池塘养殖草鱼(P<0.05);山泉流水养殖草鱼的总必需氨基酸、鲜味氨基酸分别为15.76%、5.60%,显著高于池塘养殖草鱼(P<0.05),氨基酸评分、化学评分和必需氨基酸指数均高于池塘养殖草鱼;山泉流水养殖草鱼饱和脂肪酸、单不饱和脂肪酸显著低于池塘养殖草鱼(P<0.05),多不饱和脂肪酸含量显著高于池塘养殖草鱼(P<0.05)。综上可知,山泉流水养殖草鱼在蛋白与脂肪含量、肌肉抗氧化能力、氨基酸平衡性及脂肪酸质量等方面优于普通池塘养殖草鱼。     

酶法从鳕鱼皮中提取胶原多肽的研究

胶原多肽具有多种生理活性。鳕鱼皮中含有丰富的胶原蛋白。本实验以鳕鱼皮为研究对象，采用酶法从鱼皮中提取胶原多肽，以氨基含量和水解度为指标，通过单因素和正交实验确定酶解的最佳条件。实验结果表明，采用碱性蛋白酶，加酶量4．5％、酶解温度50℃、pH8．5、酶解时间5小时，蛋白质水解度可达到13．87％。     

Association between the interannual variation in the oceanic environment and catch rates of bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) in the Atlantic Ocean

The environmental processes associated with variability in the catch rates of bigeye tuna in the Atlantic Ocean are largely unexplored. This study used generalized additive models (GAMs) fitted to Taiwanese longline fishery data from 1990 to 2009 and investigated the association between environmental variables and catch rates to identify the processes influencing bigeye tuna distribution in the Atlantic Ocean. The present findings reveal that the year (temporal factor), latitude and longitude (spatial factors), and major regular longline target species of albacore catches are significant for the standardization of bigeye tuna catch rates in the Atlantic Ocean. The standardized catch rates and distribution of bigeye tuna were found to be related to environmental and climatic variation. The model selection processes showed that the selected GAMs explained 70% of the cumulative deviance in the entire Atlantic Ocean. Regarding environmental factors, the depth of the 20 degree isotherm (D20) substantially contributed to the explained deviance; other important factors were sea surface temperature (SST) and sea surface height deviation (SSHD). The potential fishing grounds were observed with SSTs of 22–28°C, a D20 shallower than 150 m and negative SSHDs in the Atlantic Ocean. The higher predicted catch rates were increased in the positive northern tropical Atlantic and negative North Atlantic Oscillation events with a higher SST and shallow D20, suggesting that climatic oscillations affect the population abundance and distribution of bigeye tuna.     

Growth performance,digestive enzyme activity and immune response of Japanese sea bass,Lateolabrax japonicus fed with fructooligosaccharide

In this experiment, a feeding trial was performed to determine the effects of fructooligosaccharide (FOS) on growth performance, digestive enzyme activity and immune response of Japanese sea bass, Lateolabrax japonicus juveniles (initial weight 38.3 ± 0.5 g), and the fish were examined following feeding with six levels of FOS (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 6 g/kg) for 28 days. Significant enhancement of weight gain (WG) and specific growth rate (SGR) was found in fish fed 1 g/kg FOS incorporated diets (p < .05), while the feed conversion ratio (FCR) in the 1, 2 g/kg FOS groups reduced significantly compared with the control (p < .05). Besides, the crude lipid in the 4, 6 g/kg FOS groups increased significantly compared with the control (p < .05). On the other hand, the erepsin and lipase activities significantly elevated in intestine of fish fed 2 g/kg FOS (p < .05) and the lysozyme activity in serum of fish fed 2 g/kg FOS were significantly higher than that in the control (p < .05). Moreover, the alkaline phosphatase activities in serum of fish fed 0.5, 1, 2 g/kg FOS were significantly higher than in control (p < .05). Regression analysis showed that the relationships between dietary FOS levels and either SGR, FCR, erepsin or lysozyme activities were best expressed by regression equations, and the optimal inclusion levels are 1.37, 1.80, 3.06, 3.11, 1.93 and 1.80 g/kg for SGR, FCR, erepsin, lipase, lysozyme and total superoxide dismutase activities, respectively. Overall, this study revealed that FOS incorporated diets could beneficial for L. japonicus culture in terms of increasing the growth, digestion and immune activities. Under the present experimental condition, the optimal supplementary level of FOS in the diet of L. japonicus is 1–3 g/kg.     

Involvement of gonadal steroids in final oocyte maturation of white perch (Morone americana) and white bass (M. chrysops): in vivo and in vitro studies

Plasma estradiol-17 (E₂), testosterone (T), 17,20-dihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one (DHP) and 17,20,21-tri-hydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one (20-S) levels were measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA) in white perch (Morone americana) and white bass (M. chrysops) that were induced to undergo final oocyte maturation (FOM) with human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). Plasma DHP levels increased in females of both species in association with oocyte germinal vesicle migration (GVM) and germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD) and decreased thereafter. Plasma 20-S levels also increased with oocyte GVM in white bass, but were several-fold lower than DHP levels. Circulating E₂ and T levels were greatest during GVM and GVBD in both species and decreased to low levels during oocyte hydration and ovulation. Follicles from white perch and white bass which received a priming injection of hCG in vivo, produced both DHP and 20-S in vitro after exposure to hCG and their oocytes underwent GVBD. Ovarian incubates from unprimed fish of either species produced only E₂ and T and their oocytes did not complete GVBD. Oocytes from unprimed bass, but not perch, matured when follicles were exposed to hCG in vitro. Both trilostane and cycloheximide blocked in vitro production of DHP and 20-S and oocyte GVBD by white perch follices. DHP and 20-S were equipotent inducers of FOM in the GVBD bioassay. None of several other structurally-related steroids tested were effective within a physiological range of concentrations. These results indicate a role for DHP and 20-S in the control of FOM in white perch and white bass.     

Cardiac,ventilatory and metabolic responses of two ecologically dissimilar species of fish to waterborne cyanide

Changes in heart rate, ventilatory activity and oxygen consumption were determined in trout (Salmo gairdneri) and brown bullhead catfish (Ictalurus nebulosus) during exposure to a steadily increasing concentration of waterborne cyanide selected to produce death in 8–9 hours for each species. The lethal cyanide concentration for the bullheads was an order of magnitude higher than for trout. Trout developed an immediate and gradually increasing bradycardia throughout the exposure period. Cyanide produced tachycardia in the bullhead followed by a gradual onset of bradycardia as the concentration of cyanide was raised. Pericardial injection of atropine (a muscarinic cholinergic antagonist) indicated that bradycardia in the trout was due initially to increased vagal tone but later due to the direct effect of cyanide on the heart. Hyperventilation in the trout persisted throughout the exposure period, although the rate and amplitude fluctuated and was variable between individual fish. During the last hour of exposure (highest cyanide concentration), ventilation was characterized by rapid, shallow breaths followed by a sudden respiratory arrest. The bullheads exhibited hyperventilation during the first 3 hours of exposure followed by a gradual, linear drop in ventilation rate and amplitude until death occurred. Cardiac and ventilatory responses in both species were attributed to stimulation of central and peripheral chemoreceptors by cyanide. Evidence is presented which suggests the initial response in the bullheads was due, at least in part, to gustatory stimulation by the cyanide. Oxygen consumption of the trout remained above pre-exposure levels for the majority of the test period. Oxygen consumption in the bullhead paralleled the changes in heart and ventilatory rates. Whole-body lactate levels of fingerlings of both species during cyanide exposure were measured to estimate the extent of anaerobiosis. Whole-body lactate levels were much greater in the bullheads than the trout, indicating a higher capacity for anaerobiosis, possibly due to a greater fuel supply. Overall, the trout responded to cyanide in a manner similar to that produced by environmental hypoxia whereas the bullheads experienced a gustatory stimulus which masked the hypoxia-like response.     

An overview of stress physiology of fish transport: changes in water quality as a function of transport duration

This study brings an integrated analysis about the relationship between water deterioration and its physiological consequences in live fish transport. The analysis was focused on the transport water and its deterioration, and physiological challenges imposed on the fish. Usual commercial handling procedures employed to mitigate fish stress during transport were discussed. Future topics of research for the establishment of safer fish transport protocols were proposed. Transport was classified into short (≤8 h) or long transport (>8 h). The main issue in short transports should be the prevention of water pH reduction, while in long transports it is the increase in ammonia. Plasma cortisol is the most employed marker for stress and is acutely elevated upon short episodes of transport, but remains elevated even in long‐transport events. Plasma glucose is perhaps a better marker for handling stress. Plasma lactate, pH, osmolality CO₂ and ions should be more often evaluated. Plasma Na⁺ and Cl^‐ are very useful markers of acidosis, due to their respective exchange for H⁺ and , for acid–base regulation. The establishment of species‐specific transport protocols should be preceded by such combined analyses of water and physiological parameters.     

Are hatchery‐reared abalone naïve of predators? Comparing the behaviours of wild and hatchery‐reared northern abalone,Haliotis kamtschatkana (Jonas, 1845)

Abalone populations have declined worldwide, generating interest in enhancement using hatchery‐reared individuals. In many cases, such restoration efforts have met with limited success due to high predator‐induced mortality rates. Furthermore, the mortality rates of outplanted hatchery abalone are often considerably higher than for wild individuals. This study uses northern abalone (Haliotis kamtschatkana) as a case study to determine whether hatchery‐reared abalone behave differently than their wild counterparts. In the field, outplanted hatchery‐reared abalone were significantly less responsive than wild abalone, in terms of number of abalone responding and intensity of response, to nearby movement and to physical contact with an inert probe. Also, when encountering a cue to which all abalone responded (a seastar predator), hatchery‐reared individuals remained subdued. Anti‐predator behavioural deficits in hatchery‐reared abalone were more pronounced in 4‐year‐old individuals than in 1‐year‐old individuals, suggesting an influence of either age or amount of time spent in the hatchery environment. These behavioural differences are expected to increase the vulnerability of hatchery‐reared abalone to predators, and are likely a major cause of their elevated predator‐induced mortality when outplanted.     

Effects of cadmium on the kinetics of calcium uptake in developing tilapia larvae, Oreochromis mossambicus

The toxic effects of Cd²⁺ on Ca²⁺ influx kinetics in developing tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) larvae were evaluated. Addition of 20 µg l^-1 of Cd²⁺ to the environment of 0 and 3 day-old larvae competitively inhibited the Ca²⁺ uptake within 4h resulting in a great increase in K_m values for Ca²⁺ influx (19.3 and 17.4 fold, respectively) as compared with their respective controls. Consequently, the actual Ca²⁺ influx of larvae in solutions of 0.2 mM Ca²⁺ are suppressed by 32–45%. Also, 3 day-old larvae were more sensitive to internally accumulated Cd²⁺ than 0 day-old larvae. Although the Ca²⁺ influx in 0 and 3 day-old larvae may be restored to the levels of their respective controls with 24h of being transferred to a 20 µg l^-1 Cd²⁺ solution, total body Ca²⁺ content was significantly reduced in 3 day-old larvae. Increased Ca²⁺ uptake efficiency ensures sufficient Ca²⁺ for normal growth. However, rapid increase in Ca²⁺ influx after hatching also leads to higher Cd²⁺ uptake. Exposure to Cd²⁺ will lead to a drop in body Ca²⁺ content resulting in retardation of larval growth. Therefore, we conclude that if Ca²⁺ uptake is interfered with at this critical stage of development, larvae will not be able to maintain normal levels of body Ca²⁺ and will show signs of Cd²⁺ poisoning.     

Migratory dynamics of stream-spawning longnose gar (Lepisosteus osseus)

Abstract– Literature evidence suggests that lake-dwelling longnose gar (Lepisosteus osseus) enter tributary streams to spawn, Until the present study, the dynamics of this breeding migration had never been investigated quantitatively. During the summers of 1991 and 1992, longnose gar were captured as they entered Weaubleau Creek, Missouri, a tributary of Harry S. Truman Reservoir. The in-stream spawning migration began in early April and ended in late May, and was positively correlated with stream flow and water level, and negatively correlated with water temperature. In-stream residence times ranged from 15 to 94 days, with males exhibiting longer residence times than females. Once in-stream, longnose gar travelled as far as 10 km upstream and occupied certain pools at greater relative frequencies. Although the reason for this preferential utilization is not completely understood, it may relate to pool depth and riffle proximity. Longnose gar disperse from the spawning stream great distances, with gar captured in Weaubleau Creek being recaptured up to 48 km away. This information should provide fisheries biologists the means to consider the reproductive ecology of this species in their conservation and management decisions.     

Nutritional regulation of hepatocyte fatty acid desaturation and polyunsaturated fatty acid composition in zebrafish (Danio rerio) and tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

The desaturation and elongation of [1-¹⁴C]18:3n-3 was investigated in hepatocytes of the tropical warm freshwater species, zebrafish (Danio rerio) and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). The hepatocyte fatty acid desaturation/elongation pathway was assayed before and after the fish were fed two experimental diets, a control diet containing fish oil (FO) and a diet containing vegetable oil (VO; a blend of olive, linseed and high oleic acid sunflower oils) for 10 weeks. The VO diet was formulated to provide 1% each of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3, and so satisfy the possible EFA requirements of zebrafish and tilapia. At the end of the dietary trial, the lipid and fatty acid composition was determined in whole zebrafish, and liver, white muscle and brain of tilapia. Both zebrafish and tilapia expressed a hepatocyte fatty acid desaturation/elongation pattern consistent with them being freshwater and planktonivorous fish. The data also showed that hepatic fatty acid desaturation/elongation was nutritionally regulated with the activities being higher in fish fed the VO diet compared to fish fed the FO diet. In zebrafish, the main effect of the VO diet was increased fatty acid Δ6 desaturase activity resulting in the production of significantly more 18:4n-3 compared to fish fed the FO diet. In tilapia, all activities in the pathway were greater in fish fed the VO diet resulting in increased amounts of all fatty acids in the pathway, but primarily eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3). However, the fatty acid compositional data indicated that despite increased activity, desaturation of 18:3n-3 was insufficient to maintain tissue proportions of EPA and DHA in fish fed the VO diet at the same level as in fish fed the FO diet. Practically, these results indicate that manipulation of tilapia diets in commercial culture in response to the declining global fish oil market would have important consequences for fish fatty acid composition and the health of consumers. Scientifically, zebrafish and tilapia, both the subject of active genome mapping projects, could be useful models for studies of lipid and fatty acid metabolism at a molecular biological and genetic level. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Protein and amino acid composition from the mantle of juvenile O ctopus vulgaris exposed to prolonged starvation

Protein and amino acid composition of the mantle of juvenile O ctopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) during fasting for 27 days were determined. Average protein content of octopus mantle was of 711.19 ± 46.80 g kg^?1 DW, and it decreased with increasing fasting days. The non‐essential amino acids content was higher (486.18 ± 11.08 g kg^?1 protein) than essential amino acids (425.82 ± 9.15 g kg^?1 protein) at the start of the experiment (unstarved animals). The results suggest that the amino acid profile of the mantle where the most abundant amino acids are Arg, His, Lys, Gly, Leu and Pro could indicate a prolonged fasting condition (>20 days) or poor nutrition of O . vulgaris. This study supports the idea of using mantle for metabolic needs of starved O . vulgaris suggesting that the degradation pathway of amino acids to pyruvate and tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates was favoured contrary to the degradation pathway of ketogenic amino acids. Special considerations should be taken concerning Thr, Ile, Ser, Ala, Asx (Asp, Asn), Glx (Glu, Gln) (because of their fast intake) and Lys and His (due to their stable contents) during a prolonged period of fasting.