互叶白千层油(茶树油)对肉鸡小肠黏膜组织结构及肠道免疫细胞的影响

选用1日龄的雌性岭南黄肉鸡99只,随机分为3组,分别为对照组、试验Ⅰ组和试验Ⅱ组,每组33只。对照组常规饲养,试验Ⅰ组和Ⅱ组分别在饮水中添加0.012 mL/L和0.020 mL/L的茶树油,试验至45日龄结束。解剖取十二指肠、空肠、回肠进行HE染色和PAS染色,观察小肠黏膜形态、上皮内淋巴细胞及杯状细胞数目。结果显示,2个试验组与对照组相比,各段小肠的绒毛长度增加,肠壁变薄,隐窝深度变浅,肠绒毛高度/隐窝深度比值增加;2个试验组的上皮内杯状细胞和淋巴细胞的数目高于对照组。结果表明,茶树油能够改善肉鸡小肠黏膜结构,增加小肠上皮内免疫细胞数量,提示茶树油对肉鸡的肠道吸收和肠道免疫功能具有增强作用。     

犬细小病毒YZ分离株的鉴定

对1999年冬季江苏省实验动物Beagle犬基地暴发的以拉稀、便血、高死亡率的病犬作流行病学调查、病理和实验室诊断。粪便血凝价高达2^14以上，并用HI加以验证，初步诊断为犬细小病毒感染引起的出血性肠炎。用FK81细胞（胎猎肾传代细胞）分离病毒，细胞上清HA试验阳性；负染电镜观察到在小为20nm左右的病毒粒子；接种病料的细胞IFA检测可见特异性的亮绿色荧光。在小肠的病理切片中见到典型的嗜酸性核内包涵体。以此确诊为犬细小病毒感染引起的出血性肠炎。利用双琼脂空斑技术克隆一株犬细小病毒，命名为CPV－YZ株，其核酸型是单链DNA，对甲醛敏感，对氯仿、酸、胰蛋白酶不敏感，80℃ 60分钟失去活力，0．1ml TCID50是10^-6.8,SDS-PAGE电泳两条清晰的条带分别为：76kD的VP1，64kD的VP2。     

羊尤氏泰勒虫病的病理学观察

对尤氏泰勒虫人工感染的绵羊进行了病理学观察。主要的组织病变：淋巴结充血、出血及淋巴窦网状内皮细胞增生;肺脏出血,间质淋巴细胞和网状细胞增生,肺泡隔增厚;肾小球内皮细胞、血管内皮细胞增生,淋巴网状细胞灶状积累,甚至形成结节;心肌细胞变性、坏死,染色不均;肠道固有膜明显充血、出血;肝细胞颗粒变性,有散在细胞坏死,汇管区和小叶间有淋巴网状细胞增生;瘤胃黏膜下层有散在性出血,肌层见灶状出血。     

成年牦牛小肠结构及黏膜免疫相关细胞数量变化研究

为了揭示成年牦牛小肠结构和黏膜免疫相关细胞的分布与数量变化的规律,本研究采用组织化学法、图像分析法及透射电镜技术,对成年牦牛小肠形态结构及上皮内淋巴细胞、杯状细胞、浆细胞和肥大细胞数量的变化进行了研究.结果表明:牦牛小肠壁由黏膜层、黏膜下层、肌层和浆膜构成.小肠中十二指肠绒毛高度/隐窝深度的比值最高、肌层最厚;空肠绒毛最高、隐窝最深;3段小肠绒毛高度、隐窝深度、绒毛高度/隐窝深度的比值和肌层厚度之间差异极显著(P＜0.01).牦牛小肠上皮内淋巴细胞数量由十二指肠向空肠、回肠逐渐减少,且差异极显著(P＜0.01),杯状细胞和肥大细胞数量也逐渐减少,而浆细胞数量则由十二指肠到回肠逐渐递增,且差异极显著(P＜0.01).电镜观察表明,牦牛小肠绒毛上皮细胞连接为紧密连接、缝隙连接和半桥连接,细胞游离面微绒毛丰富;上皮内淋巴细胞核大、胞质较少;杯状细胞呈典型高脚杯状,细胞顶端含有大量的分泌颗粒而膨大;浆细胞呈圆形或椭圆形,染色质沿核膜排列,胞质中有丰富的内质网;肥大细胞呈椭圆形,胞质内充满电子密度极强的大小不等的膜包颗粒.成年牦牛小肠结构特点能大大地提高了对高寒草地牧草的消化和吸收效率;而小肠各段有规律的分布了丰富的黏膜免疫相关细胞,显示牦牛小肠黏膜具有很强的黏膜免疫屏障功能.     

小熊猫犬细小病毒福州株的分离鉴定

为获得自然感染小熊猫的犬细小病毒(CPV)野毒株,以快速检测试纸确诊的且具有犬细小病毒病临床症状的发病死亡小熊猫肛门棉拭子、口腔棉拭子和抗凝血为病料进行CPV的PCR检测后,将病料预处理并接种于F81细胞盲传至培养细胞出现病变,收集细胞毒并进行PCR鉴定,接种细胞毒给2月龄健康幼犬进行回归试验。结果显示,小熊猫肛门棉拭子、口腔棉拭子和抗凝血的CPV PCR检测均为阳性。病料接种F81细胞盲传第5代时,细胞病变明显,细胞接毒72h后出现拉网、皱缩、崩解、脱落。细胞毒的PCR扩增产物测序结果与已经发表的CPV-js23和2010-BJ-A64毒株相应序列的同源性均为100%。接种细胞毒的幼犬出现了犬细小病毒病特征性症状。结果表明,获得了对小熊猫毒力较强的CPV野毒株。     

犬细小病毒黑龙江株(CPV-YN)的分离、鉴定及致弱的研究

为研制犬细小病毒(CPV)致弱疫苗,本研究通过将犬的组织样品接种CRFK细胞进行病毒分离,并对分离毒株进行了一系列鉴定。鉴定结果显示,分离的病毒在CRFK细胞上可产生明显的细胞病变(CPE),并且电镜下可以观察到典型的细小病毒粒子;HA效价可达到1∶256。回归动物试验显示该分离株可导致犬出现明显的CPV感染症状,PCR鉴定也进一步确定所分离的病毒为CPV(命名为CPV-YN株)。将CPV-YN株接种CRFK细胞连续传代至110代,在传代过程中,病毒的滴度逐渐提高,由初始的105.5 TCID50/0.1 mL逐渐增加到107.1 TCID50/0.1 mL。同时,CPV对犬的致病力逐渐降低。免疫效力试验结果表明,CPV-YNR可以对用同源强毒攻击的犬提供免疫保护作用,可作为理想的疫苗候选病毒株。     

Ghrelin免疫反应阳性细胞在鸡外周器官中的定位分布与发育性变化

本试验应用免疫组织化学方法和显微图像分析技术,研究了2、16、30、44、58日龄岭南黄鸡外周器官中Ghrelin免疫反应阳性细胞的定位分布与发育性变化。结果表明,在鸡腺胃、肠、心、肝、脾、肺、肾、胰、脑垂体、肾上腺、胸腺、法氏囊中均可观察到Ghrelin免疫阳性反应。其阳性细胞类型包括:腺胃腺小管的内分泌细胞,肠道黏膜上皮和肠腺内的内分泌细胞,肠道黏膜下层和肌层间的神经丛,心内膜下层的蒲肯野纤维,肝血窦中的枯否氏细胞,脾的巨噬细胞和网状细胞,肺的巨噬细胞,肾脏肾小囊壁层的扁平上皮细胞和脏层的足细胞、球内系膜细胞和球旁复合体,胰腺的胰岛细胞,腺垂体的部分嗜酸性细胞和嗜碱性细胞,肾上腺的嗜铬细胞,胸腺上皮细胞、胸腺小体和巨噬细胞,法氏囊黏膜上皮和小结相关上皮内的内分泌细胞、囊小结的网状细胞、巨噬细胞、皮质髓质交界处的上皮细胞等。2~30日龄鸡,随着日龄的增长,各器官中的Ghrelin表达量增加,44、58日龄则有所下降。     

犬细小病毒宿主范围和入侵途径研究进展

犬细小病毒(Canine parvovirus,CPV)引起的犬细小病毒病是犬科动物的主要传染病,病毒在进化过程中出现了多个不同的分型,这些分型对细胞和组织嗜性及宿主范围都是由病毒的分子生物学特点所决定,本文综述了犬细小病毒细胞嗜性及宿主范围的分子特点和病毒的入侵途径,为细小病毒的控制提供基础。     

广东珠三角地区犬细小病毒分离与鉴定

为了解珠三角地区犬细小病毒(CPV)的流行情况及研制有效的疫苗,本研究开展了CPV流行病学调查,并将32份疑似CPV感染犬的粪便样品处理后接种F81细胞进行病毒分离,并对分离株进行鉴定。鉴定结果显示:32份样品中有19份样品提取液在F81细胞上可以产生明显的细胞病变;HA效价可达到1∶256。回归动物试验显示分离株可以导致犬出现明显的CPV感染症状,PCR鉴定也进一步确定所分离的病毒为CPV。通过VP2基因同源性分析显示分离株与国内主要的流行基因亚型CPV-2a的同源性达98%以上。     

绵羊自然感染贝氏莫尼茨绦虫对小肠黏膜免疫相关细胞的数量变化

运用组织学和组织化学染色法,分别对自然感染贝氏莫尼茨绦虫的成年绵羊（感染组）与正常成年绵羊（对照组）的小肠各肠段的上皮内淋巴细胞、浆细胞、杯状细胞和嗜酸粒细胞的分布和数量变化进行了比较研究。结果显示：感染组小肠各段上皮内淋巴细胞、浆细胞、杯状细胞和嗜酸粒细胞数量均显著高于对照组,其中感染组十二指肠、空肠和回肠的上皮内淋巴细胞数量分别比对照组增加了169.11%、230.38%和233.42%（P〈0.01）;嗜酸粒细胞数量分别比对照组增加了116.78%、123.87%和164.51%（P〈0.01）;浆细胞数量分别比对照组增加了127.34%、72.97%和328.26%（P〈0.01）;杯状细胞数量分别比对照组增加了33.40%、41.42%和133.17%。对照组和感染组上皮内淋巴细胞和杯状细胞从十二指肠到回肠均逐渐减少,相反,对照组和感染组嗜酸粒细胞数量从十二指肠到回肠均逐渐增多,对照组小肠固有层浆细胞数量从十二指肠到空肠增加,空肠到回肠减少,感染组小肠固有层浆细胞数量从十二指肠到回肠均逐渐增多;对照组十二指肠、空肠、回肠的上皮内淋巴细胞、上皮内杯状细胞、浆细胞和嗜酸粒细胞均差异极显著（P〈0.01）;感染组十二指肠、空肠、回肠的上皮内杯状细胞、浆细胞和嗜酸粒细胞均差异极显著（P〈0.01）,感染组上皮内淋巴细胞空肠与回肠差异极显著（P〈0.01）,但十二指肠与空肠差异不显著（P〉0.05）。研究结果表明,贝氏莫尼茨绦虫感染成年绵羊后,成年绵羊通过特异性黏膜免疫细胞上皮内淋巴细胞增生加强细胞免疫水平,浆细胞增生加强体液免疫水平,同时还通过非特异性黏膜免疫细胞,嗜酸粒细胞和杯状细胞的增生进一步加强黏膜免疫水平以抵抗贝氏莫尼茨绦虫对绵羊的感染。可见绵羊可以通过黏膜免疫相关细胞增生加强局部免疫力以监视虫体免疫逃逸来抵抗寄生虫的感染。     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Prevalence of gastric lesions in racing Alaskan sled dogs

Human and equine athletes are reported to have a high prevalence of gastric disease, and anecdotal evidence suggests a similar phenomenon applies to racing sled dogs. To investigate the prevalence of gastric disease in racing sled dogs, we conducted 2 gastroscopy studies on dogs competing in the annual Iditarod Sled Dog Race. A pilot study of dogs that were either dropped from the 2000 Iditarod Sled Dog Race because of illness or that finished the race indicated that, approximately 5 days after competing, 10 of 28 dogs (35%) had endoscopic evidence of gastric ulceration, erosion, or hemorrhage. The next year, an endoscopic study of 73 dogs participating in the 2001 Iditarod race was performed in order to evaluate a larger population of dogs. Data from 70 of these dogs could be used; 34 (48.5%) had ulceration, erosion, gastric hemorrhage, or some combination of these findings. When this group of 70 dogs was compared retrospectively to a control group of 87 dogs presented to the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, the Iditarod sled dogs had a significantly higher prevalence (P = .049) of gastric lesions. These findings suggest that, similar to athletes of other species, elite canine athletes have an increased prevalence of gastric disease compared to the canine population at large.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

Feline intracranial neoplasia: retrospective review of 160 cases (1985-2001)

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.     

A brief history of the prevention of infectious diseases by immunisations

Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.