Conducting surveys on forestry attitudes and practices in Leyte communities,Philippines: Experiences and lessons learnt

A survey of forestry practices and attitudes was undertaken in four communities in Leyte, the Philippines, to improve understanding of the social and economic factors affecting small-scale forestry development. The survey had three main data collection activities — initial focus group discussions (FGDs), household interviews, and reporting and validation FGDs. A team of enumerators was selected for household interviews which consisted of both males and females, to avoid potential problems of unwillingness of people to talk with those of the opposite gender. The interviewers were also required to be able to speak local dialects (Cebuano and Waray Waray), the survey questionnaires being administered in these dialects. Various methods were used to gain the support and assistance of local government units and barangay captains. Some difficulty was experienced by the survey team in the first community due to barangay elections at the time of the survey, and the requirement by the University of Queensland Ethics Committee that respondents sign a consent form. This requirement was found to be not culturally appropriate for the Leyte smallholder communities. Offering goods at the end of the interview was found to be of limited value for encouraging participation in the survey. Provision of food and drinks were found to encourage FGD participants to express their views, but too much alcohol had a negative effect. The importance of providing comprehensive feedback to respondents and involving them and other stakeholders in development of policy recommendations was apparent. These survey experiences provide valuable insights which are not generally available in textbooks on sample surveys, and provide lessons for planning and conducting smallholder community survey into natural resource management issues.     

Nursery Training for Smallholders: An Evaluation of Two Extension Programs in the Philippines

High-quality seedlings are a prerequisite for successful forestry and agroforestry expansion in developing countries. Unfortunately, in the central Philippines, as supplies of timber from native forest have diminished in recent years, the expansion in planting of timber trees has been retarded by sub-optimal production of seedlings from small-scale nurseries. To address this problem, an extension program supported by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) has attempted to improve the quality of seedlings produced in home nurseries, by assisting smallholders to raise and out-plant seedlings. A complementary program undertaken as part of the Community Agricultural Technology Program (CATP) has attempted to provide community workers and managers of small-scale nurseries with the benefit of recent ACIAR nursery research. Extended assistance in the ACIAR program addressed smallholders’ low self-efficacy in nursery technology and was successful in assisting them to grow high quality seedlings. A limited program of assistance was relatively unsuccessful. Evaluation of the CATP program showed that prior to the training, CATP participants were unfamiliar with some aspects of basic nursery technology. Consequently, they may have been unable to provide competent advice to smallholders. This implies that—as with the ACIAR training—extended training and follow-up assistance may be the key to improving the quality of seedlings for forestry and agroforestry expansion in the central Philippines.     

Tree Species Diversity in Community Managed and National Park Forests in the Mid-Hills of Central Nepal

Community forestry is expanding in developing countries but there is limited knowledge of, and contradictory findings about, its contribution to biodiversity conservation. This study aims at increasing the understanding of tree species diversity in community forests compared to National Parks. A forest inventory was carried out in four community forests and one National Park in the mid-hills of central Nepal. The study found that community forestry has contributed to high tree species diversity where forest management communities have interests in multiple species, but most community forests are moving toward promoting limited timber yielding species that have high economic value. Linking community forestry with economic incentives for conserving multiple tree species could therefore be a strategy to conserve biodiversity outside of protected areas.     

Comparative Analysis of On-Site Free-Hand Chainsaw Milling and Fixed Site Mini-Bandsaw Milling of Smallholder Timber

Sawing trials were conducted to determine the green-off sawn (GOS) timber recovery rates of chainsaw milling and mini-bandsaw milling and determine the potential returns from timber sales (stumpage value) of smallholder tree farmers in the Philippines. The GOS recovery rate of 52 % for fixed site mini-bandsaw mills was found to be significantly higher than that of on-site chainsaw milling (39 %). It was further found that when hauling distance from barangay to customers exceeds 13 km, chainsaw milling generates higher revenue due to the lower transport cost of sawn timber.     

工业化国家的林业产业政策

工业化国家林业产业当前面临的主要问题是环境污染对大面积森林构成的严重危胁和对分散的私有林无法进行现代化经营。此外,尚有财政危机和某些国家的林产品过度依赖进口等问题。在90年代,甚至更长的时期内,发达国家林业产业政策的调整方向是,保护和改造现有林,通过实施分类经营战略发挥森林的多种效益,兼用行政和经济手段引导私有林的发展,进一步调整林产品结构和大力发展木材培育业。     

Improving the International Compatibility of Accountancy Data: The ��DACH-Initiative��

Germany (D), Austria (A) and Switzerland (CH) share a long tradition in monitoring the economic performance of forest enterprises by means of forest accountancy networks. The results generated by these networks are a valuable empirical basis for forestry sector statistics in these countries. In the context of international analyses it is common practice to compare results between countries directly, without addressing the issue of compatibility. However, severe biases and even misjudgements may result from such simplistic approaches. These networks have been developed as national solutions, and their results are neither grounded on common methodological standards nor on attuned definitions, so that their compatibility is not guaranteed. The rising interest in international comparisons indicates that existing accountancy networks may well serve additional purposes. At the same time the importance of compatibility, if not standardisation, is highlighted. The institutions in charge of forestry accountancy networks in these countries recently launched an initiative to establish comparable datasets and to provide additional background information allowing a sound interpretation of any differences. This paper reflects the associated challenges, describes the agreements achieved as well as the common approaches adopted, and presents respective forestry financial results. This example illustrates the prospects as well as the limitations of deriving comparable data from heterogeneous sources. Initially, only few ratios are suited for valid comparisons. However, international compatibility could be improved substantially by computing alternative aggregates following a harmonized concept, the individual records of the participating enterprises providing respective details. In respect to some items, harmonization still hinges on specific amendments of the national data-frames. The preliminary findings indicate that the significance of biases varies to a great extent, so that a specific and prudent assessment is suggested. It is recommended that respective interfaces are provided when designing new forest accountancy data networks and amending existing ones in this respect.     

Socio-economic factors affecting smallholder tree planting and management intentions in Leyte Province,Philippines

Survey data have been collected from four rural communities in Leyte Province, the Philippines, on household tree planting and management intentions, as well as the socio-economic characteristics, attitudes to tree planting and management, farming practices and the number of trees planted. In relation to intended tree planting and management activities, respondents were asked a series of structured questions as to what tree species they intend to plant, how many individual trees of each of those species they plan to plant, and for what purpose they propose to plant each of the tree species. This paper reports the results of analyses of the stated tree management intentions of households in the four communities and identifies the socioeconomic factors that influence householders’ tree management intentions. Respondents were generally enthusiastic about the possibility for further tree planting on their land, 75% indicating they would undertake planting. About 60% indicated an interest in commercial tree farming, with no significant differences in this level of interest between communities. It was found that a number of socio-economic variables indicating higher levels of land ownership and previous experience in the forestry industry are related to the intention to plant trees to produce timber for sale. These include the use of materials from public lands, participation in community organisations and community forestry programs, and the present management of trees to produce timber for sale.     

Forest Taxes,Timber Concessions,and Policy Choices in the Amazon

Abstract

In many countries of Africa and Asia, timber production is dominated by concession contracts in public forests. In the neo-tropics, however, timber production occurs on both public and private lands; a mixture that moves countries of the neo-tropics towards the complex systems of forestry sectors in the developed world. Therefore, much of the forest taxation and public forest management literature that currently exists is pertinent to new forest policy decisions in developing countries. Unfortunately, the similarities between forest policies in the neo-tropics and those of developed countries have largely been ignored. This paper begins the process of bridging that gap to show how existing literature is important to the design of timber concessions and accompanying policy instrument design. Although the principles we discuss here apply in any mixed harvest forest economy, we use Brazil as an example because it is in the process of adopting a system of timber concessions in national forests. In our discussion, we suggest that concessions are not a perfect substitute for private forestry in the neo-tropics; concession and other instrument policies must be designed jointly; and because concession policies and government revenue objectives may be linked, the expansion of concessions must be carefully monitored.     

Community forestry for poverty alleviation in China with reference to Huoshan County,Anhui Province

Increasing attention has been paid to the question of whether and how community forestry links with poverty reduction in the mountainous regions in developing countries. Household-based community forestry was first implemented in Yunnan and spread over other parts of China in the 1980s. In this forestry management system, rural households are the main actors. Household forestry is a form of small-scale community forestry and suits the rural areas of China, where social overhead capital and skilled human resources are lacking. Community forestry has played a remarkable role in guiding and facilitating rural poverty alleviation in Huoshan County, Anhui Province. This paper describes how the community forestry project in Huoshan County has helped the farmers improve their livelihoods through the creation of a forestry model involving science and technology demonstration households and independent farmers’ organisations. The sustainable poverty alleviation model developed in Huoshan has proved to be effective in poverty alleviation and environmental protection, featuring the participatory forestry components of the project, namely household forestry, science and technology demonstration households, and independent farmers’ organisations. With technological and financial aid from government, the local farmers were able and willing to establish this small-scale forestry management system, planting fast-growing multiple-use tree species with substantial economic benefits.     

亚洲林业发展战略

本文简要地论述了亚洲森林的特点和林业发展战略.亚洲林业在世界林业中具有举足轻重的地位。从70年代起,亚洲发展中国家的林业已进入了一个新的发展时期,从传统林业转为乡村林业,制定了相应的对策,取得了进展。     

Progress and prospects of community forestry in developing and developed countries

Community forestry is practiced in various countries throughout the world, with respect to both native forests and plantations, for livelihood and forest protection purposes and also for urban amenity values. While forests have been managed to some extent by communities for thousands of years, modern models of community forestry have been practiced widely for only about 30 years. Community forestry takes many forms; there is no unique definition or categorisation, although a number of characteristics are frequently present. There is in general, involvement of a local community in forest planning as well as management, for a form of forestry which is usually relatively small-scale, motivated by multiple objectives, and receiving some financial support and organisational assistance by government and non-government organisations. Where plantations are established, these may be managed as common property, individual property rights may apply, or there may be a combination of both. Analysis of the specific research studies included in this issue reveals that community forestry systems have been refined over time as experience is gained in program designs, and notable successes have been achieved. However, ‘the jury is still out’ on whether community forestry has lived up to the optimistic expectations of its proponents.     

热处理木材及其在欧洲的发展

有效的利用木材资源是一个令人们关注的重要课题,尤其是在森林覆盖率低的国家。由于环保意识的增强,人们对木材的功能性改良越来越多地侧重于采用物理处理方法。在这样的背景下,木材热处理在许多发达国家迅速的蓬勃发展起来,尤其是在欧洲。欧洲许多国家的科研机构和生产企业都进行了大量的研究,一些大的木材热处理厂也相继建立。本文回顾了木材热处理技术的发展历程,列举了热处理木材在以荷兰、德国、法国和芬兰为代表的欧洲国家中的工业化现状,总结了热处理材性能改善的原因、环境特性以及性能和用途。图2参26。     

European forest accounting: general concepts and Austrian experiences

Within the European Union there exist three different frameworks for forest accounting at the national level. For purposes of the national accounts, the regulations of the European System of Integrated Economic Accounts (ESA) have to be observed. They require a distinction between forestry and logging and provide specific guidelines for the valuation of standing timber. In recognition of the special character of forests and forestry production, two satellite accounts are devoted to forestry: the Economic Accounts for Forestry (EAF) and the European Framework for Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting for Forests (IEEAF). Although they were designed as complementary to the national accounts and refer to the same basic methodologies, the guidelines for forest accounting provided by the three manuals are not fully compatible. Just recently, a further integration and harmonization of the concepts for forest accounting has been proposed. Austria has implemented the valuation of the increment as an output of forestry as requested by ESA and produces the EAF tables on a regular basis. The possibilities for extending forest accounting to natural resource accounts for standing timber and the IEEAF have been investigated in terms of pilot studies. The Austrian experiences and results exemplify the problems and possible solutions associated with the adoption of the different European schemes. Data deficits and valuation issues restrict the significance of respective results to some degree, especially as regards forestry-specific extensions of the accounting schemes.     

A Critical Overview of Forestry Seedling Production Policies and Practices in Relation to Smallholder Forestry in Developing Countries

This paper reviews forestry seedling production systems in South-east and East Asia and identifies problems with respect to seedling quality, seedling distribution and financial sustainability, and measures which have been adopted or advocated to improve performance in this sector. The paper draws in particular on experience in a series of research projects on smallholder forestry in the Philippines. Some observations are also drawn from the following papers in this combined special issue of Small-scale Forestry. It is found that a mix of public and private sector models are adopted for forestry seedling production, between and even within countries. Often nurseries are set up to provide seedlings for a government-directed expansion in tree planting, and have difficulty surviving once the initial planting purpose is completed. Private nurseries often lack resources, and depend on contracts to supply seedlings for financial viability. Demand tends to be highest for fast-growing species (often exotics), fruit trees, and ornamentals in the case of urban nurseries. Government policies typically favour quantity over quality of the seedlings produced. Considerable scope exists for adopting best or at least improved management practice in seedling nurseries.     

日本林产品供需现状与林业政策走向

日本是世界上林业发达国家之一, 面对林业生产衰退和地震灾害, 通过林业政策调整实现了木材供需改善和林业产业体系改造, 因此研究日本林业生产现状和政策走向对我国林业现代化建设具有重要的借鉴意义。文中介绍了日本林业产业总体发展态势, 重点分析了原木生产情况以及锯材、胶合板、人造板等木材加工企业情况, 概述了日本木材供给需求变化和木材进出口变化以及应对这些变化的最新林业政策和发展规划, 特别是林业需求促进政策的新变化和新内容, 并借鉴日本经验提出了促进中国林业现代化发展的几点政策建议。     

Policies Affecting Forestry Entrepreneurship

Many demand and supply-side policies impede or foster forestry entrepreneurship. A study was conducted to consolidate existing knowledge on policies influencing forestry entrepreneurship in Finland, Norway, Japan, Australia, the Philippines and the USA, and to draw conclusions on these impeding and fostering factors. From the country studies it was difficult to find common structures on policies affecting forestry entrepreneurship. This is understandable because most policies in forestry are aimed at supporting sustainable forest management, wood production and ecological services of the forests rather than entrepreneurship as such. Despite the high variety of policies applied in the study countries, it can be concluded that strict public control on forests’ use and management potentially impedes forestry entrepreneurship. While these policies assist to correct market failure and to promote sustainability of forest management, they may also result into unnecessary and ineffective regulations that limit the opportunities for forestry entrepreneurship. A common feature promoting the demand for forestry entrepreneurship in some of the countries studied is the strong emphasis on forestry cooperatives, which were important institutions to support small-scale forestry entrepreneurship. In many study countries, different ad hoc programs are implemented to find new economic and entrepreneurial opportunities aside from the current use of wood and forests. Subsidies and tax incentives are commonly applied to reduce risks from making forestry investments or otherwise increase the economic return from timber production.     

Farm forestry in Australia: review of a national program

Australia, like many other countries, is increasingly turning to farm forestry for its potential to address important economic, environmental and social issues at both the regional and national levels. However, despite its apparent multiple benefits, farm forestry adoption remains low, with less than 3% of all trees planted by farmers during recent years being for commercial timber production. The authors have recently completed an evaluation of the Australian government's Farm Forestry Program (FFP). That evaluation and a review of current literature are used to provide an assessment of the FFP. While the logic underpinning the program is sound, the authors identified a number of key findings from the evaluation and recommended areas for improvement. The FFP combined 26 projects to form an appropriate mix of community development and research activities and has made an important contribution to regional farm forestry. Despite important gains made by the FFP, viable regional farm forestry industries have not emerged. Whilst projects made a strong contribution to raising awareness of farm forestry, projects lacked a systematic approach to developing landholder knowledge and skills. Large numbers of demonstration sites were established with inadequate consideration given to monitoring, evaluation and dissemination of findings.     

The Economic Monitoring Network for Private Forests in Hungary

The private forestry sector in Hungary was reintroduced in the early 1990s, as a part of the initial economic reform package aimed at transforming the economy from central planning to a market economy. The fundamental changes required a complete restructuring of the forestry sector, which is still going on, with sound information becoming ever more important. The Economic Monitoring Network for Private Forests in Hungary (EMN-PF) is supporting a price and cost reference database, financial analysis of forestry processes, forestry holding analysis and estimation of the economic output of the private forestry sector. Each output is based on data collecting methods that are balanced between accuracy and ease of data collection. EMN-PF applies surveys and uses open databases as data sources. Forest owners’ and integrators’ estimates are an easy way of collecting data, but the accuracy of data is difficult to control. The analysis of forest holdings can be based on the annual financial reports of forest enterprises with pure forest activity. These reports are already existing documents, which therefore are easy to collect in large numbers, but do not provide highly detailed data. Based on the National Forest Inventory and the results of the financial analysis, the economic output of the private forestry sector can be estimated.     

Is adaptive management helpful for developing new harvesting technique and equipment

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Increasing rotation periods during a time of decreasing profitability of forestry — a paradox?

The profitability of forestry in Germany decreased during recent decades because of more or less constant prices for forest products, increasing input prices and limited success in rationalisation. However, the volume of growing stock increased significantly during this period since forest enterprises have chosen longer rotation periods. This is especially true for state owned and community owned forests but also at least partly for private forests. It is normally not an alternative for the owners of forest enterprises in Germany to sell the forests completely, but on a first glance increasing investments in standing timber during a time of decreasing profitability of forestry seems to be inconsistent with economic theory. On the one hand this observation could be explained as the result of non-timber values. However, this paper is focused on another approach, which is an expanded Faustmann model in line with soil rent theory and focused on timber production. Profitable rotations in the future have the effect of shortening the optimal rotation period because an investment in standing timber causes opportunity costs by delaying the establishment of the next generation of the forest. Unprofitable future rotations have the opposite effect, if the landowner is forced to reforest. In case investments in reforestations are not profitable decision-makers have good reasons not to cut the mature stands, in spite of the fact that the internal rates of return of investments in standing timber are low in comparison with investments on the financial market. Empirical data for the period 1954–1998 mostly from guidelines for forest valuation are used together with inflation corrected interest rates to show that optimal rotation length increased over time. Nevertheless we have to recognise that the observed rotation periods are distinctly longer than the calculated optimal rotation lengths. Other factors which may also explain the investments in forestry are discussed later.