Coupling of stress in the ER to activation of JNK protein kinases by transmembrane protein kinase IRE1

Malfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) induce cellular stress and activate c-Jun amino-terminal kinases (JNKs or SAPKs). Mammalian homologs of yeast IRE1, which activate chaperone genes in response to ER stress, also activated JNK, and IRE1alpha-/- fibroblasts were impaired in JNK activation by ER stress. The cytoplasmic part of IRE1 bound TRAF2, an adaptor protein that couples plasma membrane receptors to JNK activation. Dominant-negative TRAF2 inhibited activation of JNK by IRE1. Activation of JNK by endogenous signals initiated in the ER proceeds by a pathway similar to that initiated by cell surface receptors in response to extracellular signals.     

HRR25, a putative protein kinase from budding yeast: association with repair of damaged DNA

In simple eukaryotes, protein kinases regulate mitotic and meiotic cell cycles, the response to polypeptide pheromones, and the initiation of nuclear DNA synthesis. The protein HRR25 from the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae was defined by the mutation hrr25-1. This mutation resulted in sensitivity to continuous expression of the HO double-strand endonuclease, to methyl methanesulfonate, and to x-irradiation. Homozygotes of hrr25-1 were unable to sporulate and disruption and deletion of HRR25 interfered with mitotic and meiotic cell division. Sequence analysis revealed two distinctive regions in the protein. The NH2-terminus of HRR25 contains the hallmark features of protein kinases, whereas the COOH-terminus is rich in proline and glutamine. Mutations in HRR25 at conserved residues found in all protein kinases inactivated the gene, and these mutants exhibited the hrr25 null phenotypes. Taken together, the hrr25 mutant phenotypes and the features of the gene product indicate that HRR25 is a distinctive member of the protein kinase superfamily.     

Function of PI3Kgamma in thymocyte development, T cell activation, and neutrophil migration

Phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3Ks) regulate fundamental cellular responses such as proliferation, apoptosis, cell motility, and adhesion. Viable gene-targeted mice lacking the p110 catalytic subunit of PI3Kgamma were generated. We show that PI3Kgamma controls thymocyte survival and activation of mature T cells but has no role in the development or function of B cells. PI3Kgamma-deficient neutrophils exhibited severe defects in migration and respiratory burst in response to heterotrimeric GTP-binding protein (G protein)-coupled receptor (GPCR) agonists and chemotactic agents. PI3Kgamma links GPCR stimulation to the formation of phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-triphosphate and the activation of protein kinase B, ribosomal protein S6 kinase, and extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2. Thus, PI3Kgamma regulates thymocyte development, T cell activation, neutrophil migration, and the oxidative burst.     

Pheromone signaling mechanisms in yeast: a prototypical sex machine

The actions of many extracellular stimuli are elicited by complexes of cell surface receptors, heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-binding proteins (G proteins), and mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase complexes. Analysis of haploid yeast cells and their response to peptide mating pheromones has produced important advances in our understanding of G protein and MAP kinase signaling mechanisms. Many of the components, their interrelationships, and their regulators were first identified in yeast. Current analysis of the pheromone response pathway (see the Connections Maps at Science's Signal Transduction Knowledge Environment) will benefit from new and powerful genomic, proteomic, and computational approaches that will likely reveal additional general principles that are applicable to more complex organisms.     

Phosphorylation of ULK1 (hATG1) by AMP-activated protein kinase connects energy sensing to mitophagy

Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a conserved sensor of intracellular energy activated in response to low nutrient availability and environmental stress. In a screen for conserved substrates of AMPK, we identified ULK1 and ULK2, mammalian orthologs of the yeast protein kinase Atg1, which is required for autophagy. Genetic analysis of AMPK or ULK1 in mammalian liver and Caenorhabditis elegans revealed a requirement for these kinases in autophagy. In mammals, loss of AMPK or ULK1 resulted in aberrant accumulation of the autophagy adaptor p62 and defective mitophagy. Reconstitution of ULK1-deficient cells with a mutant ULK1 that cannot be phosphorylated by AMPK revealed that such phosphorylation is required for mitochondrial homeostasis and cell survival during starvation. These findings uncover a conserved biochemical mechanism coupling nutrient status with autophagy and cell survival.     

17β-Estradiol Regulates SKP2 Expression in Cultured Immature Boar Sertoli Cells Mainly via Estrogen Receptor β, cAMP-PKA and ERK1/2

Estrogen plays an important role in regulating testicular Sertoli cell number. Furthermore, S-phase kinase-associated protein 2 （SKP2） plays a central role in mammalian cell cycle progression. The objective of this study was to determine whether 17β-estradiol can regulate the expression of SKP2, and the Sertoli cell cycle, via estrogen receptor β （ERβ）, the cyclic adenosine monophosphate （cAMP）-protein kinase A （PKA） and extracellular signal-regulated kinase （ERK1/2） pathway. When cultured immature boar Sertoli cells were treated with 17β-estradiol, a time-dependent increase in SKP2 mRNA and protein level was observed by real-time PCR and Western blot, and 17β-estradiol activity peaked at 30 min. Treatment with ICI182780 and ERβ antagonist reduced 17β-estradiol-induced expression of SKP2 and proliferating cell nuclear antigen （PCNA）, while increasing the protein concentration of p27kip1. However, the effect of ERa antagonist on these parameters was lower than that of ICI 182780 and ERβ. Forskolin had a similar effect as 17β-estradiol on the expression of SKP2, PCNA and p27kip1, Rp-cAMP, H-89 and U0126 treatment reduced 17β-estradiol-induced changes, while H-89 also inhibited ERK1/2 activation. Therefore, 17β-estradiol mainly regulates SKP2 mRNA and protein expression via ERβ-cAMP-PKA and ERK1/2 activation. SKP2 and PCNA expression were positively correlated, while increased SKP2 expression likely resulted in p27kip1 degradation.     

OSBP is a cholesterol-regulated scaffolding protein in control of ERK 1/2 activation

Oxysterol-binding protein (OSBP) is the founding member of a family of sterol-binding proteins implicated in vesicle transport, lipid metabolism, and signal transduction. Here, OSBP was found to function as a cholesterol-binding scaffolding protein coordinating the activity of two phosphatases to control the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling pathway. Cytosolic OSBP formed a approximately 440-kilodalton oligomer with a member of the PTPPBS family of tyrosine phosphatases, the serine/threonine phosphatase PP2A, and cholesterol. This oligomer had dual specific phosphatase activity for phosphorylated ERK (pERK). When cell cholesterol was lowered, the oligomer disassembled and the level of pERK rose. The oligomer also disassembled when exposed to oxysterols. Increasing the amount of OSBP oligomer rendered cells resistant to the effects of cholesterol depletion and decreased the basal level of pERK. Thus, cholesterol functions through its interaction with OSBP outside of membranes to regulate the assembly of an oligomeric phosphatase that controls a key signaling pathway in the cell.     

Differentiation stage-specific inhibition of the Raf-MEK-ERK pathway by Akt

Extracellular signals often result in simultaneous activation of both the Raf-MEK-ERK and PI3K-Akt pathways (where ERK is extracellular-regulated kinase, MEK is mitogen-activated protein kinase or ERK kinase, and PI3K is phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase). However, these two signaling pathways were shown to exert opposing effects on muscle cell hypertrophy. Furthermore, the PI3K-Akt pathway was shown to inhibit the Raf-MEK-ERK pathway; this cross-regulation depended on the differentiation state of the cell: Akt activation inhibited the Raf-MEK-ERK pathway in differentiated myotubes, but not in their myoblast precursors. The stage-specific inhibitory action of Akt correlated with its stage-specific ability to form a complex with Raf, suggesting the existence of differentially expressed mediators of an inhibitory Akt-Raf complex.     

Signaling pathways for PC12 cell differentiation: making the right connections

A key issue in signal transduction is how signaling pathways common to many systems-so-called canonical signaling cassettes-integrate signals from molecules having a wide spectrum of activities, such as hormones and neurotrophins, to deliver distinct biological outcomes. The neuroendocrine cell line PC12, derived from rat pheochromocytoma, provides an example of how one canonical signaling cassette-the Raf --> mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) --> extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway-can promote distinct outcomes, which in this case include neuritogenesis, gene induction, and proliferation. Two growth hormones, epidermal growth factor (EGF) and nerve growth factor (NGF), use the same pathway to cause PC12 proliferation and differentiation, respectively. In addition, pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP), a neurotransmitter that also causes differentiation, uses the same canonical cassette as NGF but in a different way. The Connections Map for PC12 Cell Differentiation brings into focus the complex array of specific cellular responses that rely on canonical signal transduction systems.     

MAP激酶在植物信号传递网络中的功能

促分裂素原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinases,MAP激酶,MAPK)链是真核生物信号传递网络中的重要途径之一.MAPK链由3类蛋白激酶MAP3K-MAP2K-MAPK组成,通过依次磷酸化将上游信号传递至下游应答分子.本文主要阐述MAPK链在植物的逆境反应、抗病反应和激素调控等信号传递网络中的功能.     

Activated signal transduction kinases frequently occupy target genes

Cellular signal transduction pathways modify gene expression programs in response to changes in the environment, but the mechanisms by which these pathways regulate populations of genes under their control are not entirely understood. We present evidence that most mitogen-activated protein kinases and protein kinase A subunits become physically associated with the genes that they regulate in the yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) genome. The ability to detect this interaction of signaling kinases with target genes can be used to more precisely and comprehensively map the regulatory circuitry that eukaryotic cells use to respond to their environment.     

FSH和17β-雌二醇联合作用对仔猪睾丸 支持细胞Skp2表达的调节

 【目的】确定FSH和雌激素联合作用是否可通过ERK1/2级联调节培养条件下未成熟仔猪睾丸支持细胞中Skp2的表达。【方法】以培养的仔猪睾丸支持细胞为试验材料,通过添加各种信号通路的抑制剂,应用Western blotting和实时荧光定量PCR检测Skp2蛋白、mRNA的表达。【结果】FSH（50 ng·mL-1）和17β-雌二醇（10-9 mol·L-1）联合作用时以时间依赖的方式促进了Skp2蛋白和mRNA的表达（P＜0.05）,这一作用在30 min时到达高峰;FSH（50 ng·mL-1）、17β-雌二醇（10-9 mol·L-1）和forskolin单独作用均促进了Skp2蛋白和mRNA的表达（P＜0.05）,FSH（50 ng·mL-1）和17β-雌二醇（10-9 mol·L-1）联合作用对Skp2表达的影响与FSH或17β-雌二醇（10-9 mol·L-1）单独作用无显著差异（P≥0.05）,而环磷酸腺苷抑制剂（Rp-cAMP）、蛋白激酶A（PKA）抑制剂（H-89）、L-Ca2+离子通道抑制剂（verapamil）和ERK1/2抑制剂（U0126）单独作用时对Skp2蛋白和mRNA的表达与空白对照相比无显著影响（P＞0.05）,但都抑制了FSH（50 ng·mL-1）与17β-雌二醇（10-9 mol·L-1）联合作用对Skp2蛋白和mRNA表达的影响（P＜0.05）。H-89、verapamil单独作用对ERK1/2（细胞外信号调节的蛋白激酶1/2）活性没有影响,但降低了FSH（50 ng·mL-1）和17β-雌二醇（10-9 mol·L-1）联合作用对ERK1/2活性的影响。【结论】 FSH与17β-雌二醇联合作用激活了cAMP-PKA级联和Ca2+内流,而PKA和Ca2+内流又通过影响ERK1/2的活性进而影响Skp2的表达。     

Comparative analysis of protein kinases and associated domains between Ascomycota and Basidiomycota

Protein kinases play an important role in every aspect of cellular life. In this study, we systemically identified protein kinases from the predicted proteomes of 59 representative fungi from Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Comparative analysis revealed that fungi from Ascomycota and Basidiomycota differed in the number and variety of protein kinases. Some groups of protein kinases, such as calmodulin/calcium regulated kinases (CMGC) and those with the highest group percentages are the most prevalent protein kinases among all fungal species tested. In contrast, the STE group (homologs of the yeast STE7, STE11 and STE20 genes), was more abundant in Basidiomycetes than in Ascomycetes. Importantly, the distribution of some protein kinase families appeared to be subphylum-specific. The tyrosine kinase-like (TKL) group had a higher protein kinase density in Agaricomycotina fungi. In addition, the distribution of accessory domains, which could have functional implications, demonstrated that usage bias varied between the two phyla. Principal component analysis revealed a divergence between the main functional domains and associated domains in fungi. This study provides novel insights into the variety and expansion of fungal protein kinases between Ascomycota and Basidiomycota.     

Turnover of inositol phospholipids and signal transduction

Various extracellular informational signals such as those from a group of hormones and some neurotransmitters appear to be passed from the cell surface into the cell interior by two routes, protein kinase C activation and Ca2+ mobilization. Both routes usually become available as the result of an interaction of a single ligand and a receptor and act synergistically to evoke subsequent cellular responses such as release reactions. The signal-dependent breakdown of inositol phospholipids, particularly phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate, now appears to be a key event for initiating these processes.     

小反刍兽疫病毒细胞膜受体的鉴定

【目的】对小反刍兽疫病毒（Peste des petits ruminants virus,PPRV）H蛋白胞外区（tH）细胞膜受体进行鉴定,为PPRV致病机制的研究奠定基础。【方法】克隆PPRV H基因胞外区（tH）,在毕赤酵母(Pichia pastoris)中进行真核表达,纯化后免疫家兔,获得兔抗PPRVtH蛋白特异性抗体;提取山羊外周血淋巴细胞膜蛋白,经SDS-PAGE检测后,湿转印法转印至NC膜,分别利用纯化的重组tH蛋白和PPRV进行病毒铺覆蛋白结合试验（VOPBA）,对受体进行鉴定。【结果】成功克隆了1 653 bp的PPRV tH基因,构建其重组酵母表达质粒pPIC9K-tH,诱导表达后获得了60 ku目的蛋白。重组tH蛋白免疫家兔后获得了效价为1∶200的抗血清。Westernblotting分析发现,该重组蛋白可与PPRV多克隆抗体发生特异性反应,山羊外周血淋巴细胞膜蛋白上有2个与PPRV和重组tH蛋白结合的蛋白带,分子质量约为38和100 ku。【结论】从山羊外周血淋巴细胞膜蛋白上鉴定到了2种与PPRV结合的蛋白组分,其特性有待于进一步研究。     

星星草类萌发素蛋白基因(PutGLP2)的克隆及生物信息学分析

类萌发素蛋白是一类种子萌发相关的特异性标记,其在植物生物和非生物胁迫应答过程中起到了重要作用。本研究通过酵母cDNA文库筛选,获得全长为1 065 bp的PutGLP2基因,其5′非翻译区164 bp,开放读码框666 bp,编码221个氨基酸,3′非翻译区235 bp。利用PCR技术,克隆获得PutGLP2的ORF序列。生物信息学分析发现,PutGLP2在氨基端(N端)具有一个跨膜结构域及N端信号肽,预测定位于细胞壁或胞外间质。将PutGLP2与水稻的43种GLP蛋白进行聚类分析,发现PutGLP2属于类萌发素亚家族2成员之一,并与水稻OsGLP1-1相似性最高。本研究将为丰富植物类萌发素蛋白基因信息提供参考。