2005—2007年西南地区卫星监测热点分析

西南是我国受森林火灾危害严重的主要区域,分析我国西南地区森林火灾发生规律对改进这一地区的林火管理有重要现实意义.根据国家林业局林火监测中心提供的2005-2007年卫星监测到的热点数据及相关信息,发现2005-2007年西南地区热点主要分布在云南、广西和贵州西南部,所有监测到的热点中30.1%是农业用火,主要分布在云南西南和南部;44.6%的热点可能是野外植被燃烧引起的,这些热点包括草原、灌丛、森林和荒地上的火烧以及计划烧除、炼山等.西南地区的火烧主要发生在11月-翌年5月,1-5月份发生的火烧占全部野火热点的77.6%.森林火灾集中分布在云南东部和西北部、贵州东南部和广西大部分地区.由于这一地区人为火源和农业用火较多,加强研究区内高火险天气的火源管理是减少森林火灾的重要有效措施.     

大兴安岭南部春季火行为特征及可燃物消耗

利用标准地调查分析2007年春季大兴安岭2起森林火灾的火行为及可燃物变化.采用加拿大火险天气指数(FWI)系统分析火险变化,地表可燃物载量调查采用线状相交可燃物调查方法,并利用MODIS遥感数据对火烧程度进行分级.结果表明:FWI系统各指标可以很好地指示森林火险变化,2007年4-5月细小可燃物湿度码(FFMC)基本都在90以上,腐殖质湿度码(DMC)和干旱指数(DC)在4月份持续升高,2场大火也发生在火险高的时段.火烧类型以地表火为主,部分林分有冲冠火.火后阔叶林地表径级可燃物增加不明显,针阔混交林主要是5.0～6.99 cm径级可燃物增加,而落叶松纯林火烧后除0.50～0.99 cm径级可燃物减少外,其他径级可燃物都明显增加.不同火烧程度对地表可燃物载量的影响有差异.中度和重度火烧后草本盖度明显下降,有些林分下木层死亡率较高.罕诺河火场和松岭区壮志林场过火区重度火烧分别占33.2%和46.4%.     

大兴安岭地区森林火险变化及FWI适用性评估

根据研究区内及附件气象站每日气温、相对湿度、24小时降水和风速计算1987—2006年大兴安岭每日的加拿大林火天气指数系统(FWI)各组分值。利用空间插值方法,获得1987—2006年所有森林火灾发生日的FWI系统各组分值。大兴安岭林区森林火灾主要发生在落叶针叶林(61.3%)、草地(23.9%)和落叶阔叶林(8.0%),主要火源是雷击火(占57.1%)。4—6月份森林火灾发生时的FWI、FFMC和ISI平均值高。根据1987—2006年FWI组分指数的分布和火发生情况,对森林火险指数进行了分级,低、中、高、很高和极高火险的FWI取值范围分别为0～2.5,2.6～10.0,10.1～18.0,18.1～31.0,≥31.1。FWI对大兴安岭地区森林火险有显著的指示意义,FFMC和ISI对预测火灾的发生与蔓延有较好的指示作用。1987—2001年每年明显有春季和秋季2个火险期,但2002—2006年火险期显著延长。春季火险严重度指数(SSR)波动幅度比较大,夏季SSR和春季SSR有相反的波动趋势,2000—2006年秋季火险严重度明显升高。     

大兴安岭雷击火时空分布及预报模型

雷击火是中国大兴安岭地区重要火源.根据1990-2006年研究区内10个气象站日观测数据包括最高气温、最小湿度、24 h降水、平均风速等指标计算每日FWI系统各指标,分析雷击火的发生与火险指数的关系.根据各气象站与研究区质心的距离确定各气象站的权重,计算研究区火险指数平均值.1990-2006年大兴安岭林区共发生森林火灾591起,其中雷击火359起,占60.7%.70%的雷击火分布在121°～125°E,51°～53°N,平均每起雷击火过火面积为797.37hm2,森林受害面积为581.67 hm2.71.9%、2.5%和17.3%的雷击火分别发生在落叶针叶林、落叶阔叶林和草地.雷击火发生在4-9月,5-8月是雷击火多发月份.1990-2006年雷击火发生时间段整体上有延长趋势.8月和9月发生的雷击火都发生在1998-2005年.雷击火的发生受气温与降水的影响,月均气温高、降水量少,雷击火次数明显多.发生雷击火日的平均可燃物湿度码FFMC、DMC、DC和FWI分别为90.3,69,6,287.4和24.7.雷击火发生日各火险成分指数平均值均高于1990-2006年4-9月总体平均值.根据雷击火发生概率和每日火险指数建立了雷击火发生概率预测模型.     

未来情景下西南地区森林火险变化

采用区域气候模式输出的日值和加拿大森林火险天气指数系统,在50 km×50 km尺度下,分析IPCCSRES A2和B2情景下中国西南地区未来不同时段区域森林火险和森林火险期变化,为科学制定未来林火管理规划提供参考.气候情景数据使用区域气候模式系统(PRECIS)对中国区域1961-2100年SRES A2,B2情景下的气候模拟结果,计算研究区各格点森林火险天气指数( FWI),并利用ANUSPLIN软件把研究结果插值到1 km×1 km水平.结果表明:PRECIS模式对研究区的平均气温和月均降水均有较好的模拟能力,气温和降水空间分布形态及中心区域与观测数值基本一致.A2和B2情景下西南地区火险期(11月至翌年5月)内森林火险天气指数平均分别增加1.66和1.40.A2和B2情景下2041-2050年火险期FWI平均变率分别为1.22倍和1.24倍,表明A2和B2情景下西南地区的森林火烧面积在2041-2050年可能比基准时段增加22％和24％,并且在火险高的月份潜在的森林火烧面积增加更为明显.与基准时段相比,2种情景下都表现出低火险日数明显减少和极高火险日数显著增加的趋势.A2和B2情景下,2041-2050年高、很高和极高火险等级总日数分别增加17和13天.建议根据未来森林火险和火险期变化特点,加强早期预警、火灾监测和可燃物管理等,提高该区域适应气候变化的能力.     

林分尺度上的森林火险动态评估

以林分为空间单元,动态评估小班尺度潜在森林火灾风险对于火灾预防管理实践具有重要作用。研究以云南临沧市临翔区多年采脂思茅松林分为对象,采集多年未采脂、采脂条件下的林分因子样本,以火源可及性、死可燃物载量、林分易燃性,以及坡度、坡向、地表湿润度为评估变量,构建小班尺度上的森林火险评估模型,分别评估林分在全国火险等级模型下的基础火险值(BHX)、未采脂条件下的静态火险值(SHX)及采脂条件下动态火险值(DHX)。在地理信息系统(GIS)支持下,利用地图模拟表达采脂活动引起林分可燃物载量和易燃性、火源密度等增加下的火险动态变化格局,并分析林分森林火险等级大幅变化原因。研究结果表明:研究区所有林分具有一致的基础森林火险值(BHX),危险性大;林分可燃物条件差异造成的未采脂林分静态火险值差异较大,大部分小班处于高火险等级;林分因采脂经营活动使各小班火险值呈现不同程度的增加,林分火险等级主要集中在极高火险,火险上升比率大于25%的林分面积超过60%;过度、非规范的采脂经营活动是林分火险等级增加的主要原因。林分是森林经营活动的基本单位,火险评估精细化至不同经营水平下的林分小班尺度,研究对基层林火管理及其它经营措施下火险动态评估具有一定的参考及借鉴价值。     

河北省森林火灾规律与特点初探

本文根据河北省森林火灾的材料,对森林火灾的规律与特点进行了初步探讨。结果表明,河北省森林火险期长,高火险期集中,火警频繁,森林火灾的火因均为人为火源。因此,在森林防火工作中,采取多种措施,强化火源管理,辅以必要的森林防火设施设备,提高森林火灾的综合控制能力,就可以将森林火灾的损失控制在最低限度以内。     

谈野外用火管理

不管森林火险等级多高,危险多大,没有火源,森林火灾是不会自行发生的。火源来自四面八方,十分复杂,无时无刻都有发生森林火灾的可能,以福建省天气情况为例:高温、干燥、少雨天气出现在每年的6、7、8、9月,给森林火灾的出现提供了易燃条件,照理火灾的次数一定很多,而实际情况又不是这样,主要原因是我省农、林业生产用火不在这时候,火源出现频率低。据福建省1987年全省森林火灾情况统计,1至3月占全年82.6%;10至12月占6.6%;4至9月占10.8%,由此清楚地看出1至3月发生的森林火灾次数占全年绝大部份。这主要是福建省农村春耕前的备耕工作在这段时间,用火较多,产生的火源也较频繁。有了火源,发生火灾的     

杭州市森林火灾现状分析及预防对策杭州市森林火灾现状分析及预防对策

对杭州市2000-2008年的森林火灾发生特点进行了分析,结果表明,森林火灾各年间发生的次数呈波浪状变化与不同年份大气环流气候变化相关;森林火灾主要发生在春冬两季,这与杭州市冬季晴冷少雨、空气干燥的气候特点以及炼山等人为用火活动规律相关;森林火灾次数日发生相对集中在10：00-16：00,占火灾总次数的83%;森林火灾的发生与森林植被类型相关,在针叶林的发生次数、受害面积最多;森林火灾发生火源99%是人为火源;森林火灾在中、幼林发生的次数较多,占总次数的80%。指出杭州市存在气候条件不利,林中可燃物多,森林消防基础设施条件差,森林防火长效管理机制不完善,防火意识弱,防火责任不够实,防火队伍质量不高,森林自身防火性能不高等问题。提出了完善森林防火长效机制：完善责任追究机制、考核机制、群防群治机制、火源管理机制、森林防火投入机制及各种森林防火的规章制度;严重干旱期间及高森林火险等级天气期间采取超常规措施,在各县（市）区适时颁布“禁火令”,规定禁火期间和禁火区,禁止一切野外用火;营造生物防火林带,改造针叶林成阔叶提高森林自身的防火性能等措施。     

杭州市森林火灾现状分析及预防对策

对杭州市2000-2008年的森林火灾发生特点进行了分析,结果表明,森林火灾各年间发生的次数呈波浪状变化与不同年份大气环流气候变化相关;森林火灾主要发生在春冬两季,这与杭州市冬季晴冷少雨、空气干燥的气候特点以及炼山等人为用火活动规律相关;森林火灾次数日发生相对集中在10:00-16:00,占火灾总次数的83%;森林火灾的发生与森林植被类型相关,在针叶林的发生次数、受害面积最多;森林火灾发生火源99%是人为火源;森林火灾在中、幼林发生的次数较多,占总次数的80%.指出杭州市存在气候条件不利,林中可燃物多,森林消防基础设施条件差,森林防火长效管理机制不完善,防火意识弱,防火责任不够实,防火队伍质量不高,森林自身防火性能不高等问题.提出了完善森林防火长效机制:完善责任追究机制、考核机制、群防群治机制、火源管理机制、森林防火投入机制及各种森林防火的规章制度;严重干旱期间及高森林火险等级天气期间采取超常规措施,在各县(市)区适时颁布"禁火令",规定禁火期间和禁火区,禁止一切野外用火;营造生物防火林带,改造针叶林成阖叶提高森林自身的防火性能等措施.     

Decomposition and nutrient loss from prunings of different contour hedgerow species in tea plantations in the sloping highlands of Sri Lanka

Contour hedgerows of multipurpose tree species in the sloping tea lands of Sri Lanka are expected to reduce soil erosion and also add significant amounts of plant nutrients to the soil via periodic prunings. The objective of this experiment was to characterize the biomass decomposition pattern and quantify the amount of nutrients added through prunings of six tree species (Calliandra calothyrsus, Senna spectabilis, Euphatorium innulifolium, Flemingia congesta, Gliricidia sepium and Tithonia diversifolia) currently being used in hedgerows associated with tea. Withered leaf and stem prunings (50 g) were enclosed in 2-mm litter bags, placed at 5-cm depth and retrieved after one, three, six, nine and 12 weeks. Loss of initial dry weight, N, P and K was measured. Single exponential decay function adequately described both dry weight and nutrient loss. Tree species differed significantly in their rate of breakdown with decomposition constants (k) varying from 0.0299 to 0.2006 week⁻¹ for leaves and from 0.0225 to 0.0633 week⁻¹ for stems. Gliricidia showed the highest k for leaves with the rest in the following descending order: Senna > Tithonia ≥ Euphatorium > Calliandra > Flemingia. A similar pattern was observed for loss of all nutrients with Calliandra and Flemingia always having lower k values than the rest. Although N immobilization was not observed, immobilization of P and K was observed during the first week of incubation in some species, particularly in stem prunings. Annual biomass of prunings differed significantly between tree species in the following descending order: Calliandra > Senna > Flemingia > Tithonia > Gliricidia > Euphatorium. Calliandra added the greatest amount of nutrients annually to the soil with Euphatorium adding the least. Calliandra prunings provided the annual total K requirement and 49% of the N requirement of mature tea. However, none of the species provided more than 5% of the P requirement. It is concluded that among the tree species tested, Calliandra and Flemingia are the most suitable for contour hedgerows in tea plantations of this agroclimatic region because of their higher soil nutrient enrichment capacity and slower decomposition rates which would minimize leaching losses. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Effects of Seed Weight and Seed Type on Early Seedling Growth of Pinus sylvestris under Harsh and Optimal Conditions

The effects of seed weight and seed type on seedling growth of Pinus sylvestris (L.) were studied by seeding individually weighed orchard and stand seed in different mixtures under harsh (direct seeding in field) and optimal (seeding in nursery) conditions. In the nursery experiment an increase in the seed weight from 3 to 7 mg increased the seedling height by 10-27% and total weight by 27-113%, and decreased the height/diameter ratio by 5-6% after 2 yrs. With elimination of seed weight effects, orchard seedlings were 2% taller than stand seedlings in year 2. Without elimination of seed weight effects, orchard seedlings were 7-13% taller. In the field experiment an increase in the seed weight from 3 to 7 mg increased seedling height by 18-65%, stem volume by 81-274% and the number of top-buds by 23-34% in year 5. After elimination of seed weight effects, orchard seedlings were 7-13% taller than stand seedlings and without elimination of seed weight effects 20-21% taller after 5 yrs. Even after elimination of both seed weight and genetic effects orchard seedlings were 3-9% larger than stand seedlings in the field experiment. In conclusion, the influence of seed weight and seed type on growth traits and slenderness is highly significant and the influence seems to be greater in harsh conditions.     

Modelling of adequate pretwist for obtaining straight timber

Abstract

Wood in general and wooden studs in particular are often distorted owing to uneven shrinkage during the drying process in the sawmill. Twist is often the most detrimental of all types of distortion, and it is caused by spiral grain in combination with variations in moisture content. For sawmills, the objective is to produce dried, straight boards, and one method of dealing with boards with excessive spiral grain is to sort them out and then dry them in a pretwisted position to obtain straight boards after drying. A model using the finite element (FE) method for the simulation of drying twist distortions was first calibrated against laboratory experiments in which boards were dried with and without restraints and pretwists. After the calibration, the FE results were compared with industrial test results for boards that were dried without restraints or with restraints with zero pretwist, i.e. straight restraints. The FE model used an elastic–ideally plastic material model to obtain permanent deformations. The calibration was to set the yield stresses so that there was a good match between FE results and results from the laboratory experiments. The comparison between the industrial test results and the FE results showed that the FE model is capable of realistic simulations of drying boards with and without restraints and presumably also pretwists.     

Potential to harness superior nutritional qualities of exotic baobabs if local adaptation can be conferred through grafting

Baobab leaves form an important part of the local diet in Sahel countries and elsewhere in Africa. Existing leaf nutritional data and agroforestry performance information are based solely on Adansonia digitata L., the baobab of continental Africa. The introduction potential of Adansonia species from the center of diversity in Madagascar and from Australia remains untapped. To assess this potential, the mineral contents and B₁ and B₂ vitamin levels of dried baobab leaves were determined for five-year old trees of A. digitata, A. gibbosa (A. Cunn.) Guymer ex D. Baum, A. rubrostipa Jum. & H. Perrier (syn. A. fony Baill.), A. perrieri Capuron and A. za Baill. grown in an introduction trial in Mali. Nutritional data were evaluated against survival and vigor to identify promising germplasm. Leaf vitamin and crude protein contents were highest in the Madagascar species, especially A. rubrostipa (B₁ 88 mg 100 g⁻¹, B₂ 187 mg 100 g⁻¹, protein 20.7% dry weight). However, the local species far outperformed the introductions in survival, tree height, basal diameter and resistance to termites. We suggest grafting as a way of harnessing the vigor of well-adapted local baobab varieties to the superior nutritional profiles of A. rubrostipa and others. Cross-species grafting tests in Adansonia were successful, thus creating new agroforestry possibilities with different scion/rootstock combinations.     

Biogeochemical impacts of clearfelling and reforestation on blanket-peatland streams: II. major ions and dissolved organic carbon

Streams and drains in blanket-peatland forest in western Ireland were sampled weekly over 5 years, 1996–2000, using continuous, depth-proportional passive sampling. Analysis was for pH, alkalinity by Gran titration, anions by IC, metals by ICP, aluminium speciation by loaded-resin exchange, and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) by absorbance at 320 nm.

Effects of felling are identified graphically from two forest drains whose catchments (both about 1 ha) were clearfelled, and partial clearfelling of one larger catchment (somewhat over 1 km²), in summer 1999. Calcium concentrations and alkalinity were increased in the drain- and streamwater from the felled areas. The pH was increased in drains, while in the larger stream, pH range decreased while the mean increased. Phosphorus increased markedly with clearfell, in the absence of recent fertilising, and also increased with fertilising; these results are reported in an accompanying paper. Ammonium-nitrogen concentrations were increased in the two drains with felling, and temporarily decreased in the larger stream. Nitrate increased in some cases. Potassium and manganese concentrations also increased. Concentrations of DOC and organic monomeric aluminium increased gradually, subject to a continuing strong annual cycle. There were no clearfelling effects on concentrations of solphate, suspended solids or inorganic monomeric aluminium. In the two drains (fully clearfelled), concentrations of sodium, chloride and magnesium, and conductivity, were all reduced after felling. Fertilising effects other than for phosphorus were indistinct.

Effects of the combined clearfell–reforestation treatment were testable statistically, using randomised intervention analysis, between two larger streams (1 km²) as a treatment–control comparison. There were statistically significant positive responses in streamwater concentrations of nitrate, potassium, calcium, DOC and aluminium fractions. The implications for management practice depend on whether the loss of nutrients is sustainable for future crop productivity, and whether critical limits and loads of receiving ecosystems are exceeded.     

Effect of Drought on Growth and Mortality of Actively Growing Norway Spruce Container Seedlings Planted in Summer

Survival, root egress and height growth of 13-month-old actively growing Norway spruce ( Picea abies (L.) Karst.) container seedlings exposed to preplanting drying treatments (0, 4, and 8 days) and postplanting drought periods (1, 2, 3, and 4 weeks) were studied in the field between 5 July and 18 August 1999. The mortality of seedlings increased and the height growth and root egress decreased throughout the postplanting drought period. Postplanting performance was also affected by preplanting drying treatments. The results indicate that no risk of excessive mortality and growth restrictions occurs when actively growing seedlings are planted in summer, provided that seedlings are well watered before planting and the drought period does not exceed 3 weeks.     

Rehabilitation of diseased cacao fields in Peru through shade regulation and timing of biocontrol measures

The objective of this case study was to test the effectiveness of biocontrol for the rehabilitation of abandoned, diseased (moniliasis, witches' broom and black pod) cocoa and to develop testable hypotheses regarding the effect of shade and biocontrol timing. Three trial fields differed in their shade regimes. Biocontrol was administered starting either at flowering or pod filling. Disease incidence and yield were compared with cultural control alone. Biocontrol reduced moniliasis from 49% to 25%, independent of the shading regime and application time. Witches' broom was most severe without shade and unaffected by biocontrol. No significant effects on black pod were observed. Although biocontrol increased percentage healthy fruit independent of shading and timing, only the shaded plot with biocontrol from flowering onwards responded with increased yield. Our hypothesis is: 'In the rehabilitation of abandoned cacao, only fields under sustainable shade management and early onset of biocontrol can realise their production potential.' This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Growth of Phlebiopsis gigantea in wood of seven conifer species

Heterobasidion parviporum and Heterobasidion annosum are widely distributed root‐rot fungi that infect conifers throughout Europe. Infection of conifer stumps by spores of these pathogens can be controlled by treating fresh stumps with a competing non‐pathogenic fungus, Phlebiopsis gigantea. In this study, growth of three Latvian strains of P. gigantea and the biological control agent ‘Rotstop’ strain was evaluated in stem pieces of Norway spruce, Scots pine, lodgepole pine, Douglas‐fir, Weymouth pine, Siberian larch and Sitka spruce. The growth rates of one H. parviporum and one H. annosum isolate were also measured in the same stem pieces. The growth rate of P. gigantea varied greatly in wood of different conifer species. It was higher in the three pine species, lower in Norway spruce and lowest in Sitka spruce and Siberian larch, and in Douglas‐fir, this fungus did not grow. The largest area of wood occupied by P. gigantea was in lodgepole pine. Growth of Latvian isolates of P. gigantea in the wood of Pinus and Picea species was comparable to that of the Rotstop isolate. Consequently, stump treatment with local P. gigantea isolates should be recommended. However, our results suggest that Douglas‐fir stump treatment against Heterobasidion by P. gigantea may be ineffective and other stump treatment methods should be considered.     

Growth of Mixed Birch-Coniferous Stands in Relation to Pure Coniferous Stands at Similar Sites in South-eastern Norway

Mean age, mean and top heights and yield were studied in 20 mixed stands of birch ( Betula pubescens Ehrh. and B. pendula Roth) and Picea abies (L.) Karst. and nine mixed stands of birch and Pinus sylvestris L. in south-eastern Norway. Each mixed stand and the adjacent pure coniferous stand (control) were growing under the same site conditions and had not been commercially thinned. There were no significant differences in mean age at breast height or in top heights between birch and conifers in the mixed stands, while mean height was significantly higher for birch than for spruce. A growth index was calculated based on total volume and age at breast height. For the spruce sites the growth in young mixed stands (birch < 17 m) was superior to that of pure spruce, while the difference was insignificant in older stands. The growth index correlated positively with the ratio between generatively and vegetatively regenerated birch trees, and negatively with the age of the oldest species in the mixture and with site quality. For the pine sites there was no significant difference in the growth index between mixed birch-pine and pure pine stands. A mixture effect of birch on the volume yield of spruce or pine could not be demonstrated.     

Defoliation by the Needle-shortening Pine Gall Midge,Thecodiplosis brachyntera,on Pines in Central Sweden

An outbreak of the needle-shortening pine gall midge, Thecodiplosis brachyntera , occurred on Scots pine, Pinus sylvestris (L.) and lodgepole pine, P. contorta (Dougl.) in central Sweden during 1995-1998. The larval feeding of T. brachyntera kills current-year needles and heavy infestation causes severe defoliation. A pattern of fluctuating defoliation among years and sites was found on both pine species. Defoliation was evenly distributed in the crown of P. sylvestris during years of high as well as low infestation; apical whorls had as much defoliation as basal whorls. In P. contorta , however, there was a tendency for defoliation to be concentrated on branches in the most apical whorls. Growth ring increments on P. sylvestris with high levels of defoliation (71%) did not differ from trees with moderate levels (26%) of defoliation. Shoot lengths were significantly shorter, however, on heavily infested trees the year after defoliation.