Influence of growth stresses and material properties on distortion of sawn timber — numerical investigation

? The board distortion that occurs during the sawing and the drying process causes major problems in the utilisation of sawn timber. The distortion is highly influenced by parameters such as spiral grain angle, modulus of elasticity, shrinkage, growth stresses and sawing pattern.

? In this study a finite element simulation of log sawing and timber drying was performed to study how these parameters interact to affect board distortion. A total of 81 logs with different material combinations were simulated. From each simulated log four boards with different annual ring orientation were studied.

? The results showed that the elastic modulus, shrinkage coefficient and growth stresses had a large influence on the final bow and spring deformation. After sawing of the log into boards, the release of growth stresses was the main contributor to the bow and spring deformation. For boards with low modulus of elasticity, the bending distortion became larger than for the boards with high modulus of elasticity. The twist deformation was very small after sawing but increased significantly during drying of the boards. The results showed that spiral grain angle and the board location within the log were the main contributors to the twist deformation.

     

非洲花梨木干燥工艺的研究

对非洲花梨木的干燥基准及特性进行了初步研究。结果表明所采用的干燥基准可以对非洲花梨木的薄板进行干燥处理,不仅干燥速度快,而且板面基本没有干燥缺陷。非洲花梨木的边材和心材可采用同一种干燥基准,干燥质量均能达到国家锯材质量标准。     

Using near-infrared hyperspectral images on subalpine fir board. Part 1: Moisture content estimation

Abstract

In this study, moisture content (MC) images of subalpine fir (abies lasiocarpa Hook) boards were derived from near-infrared hyperspectral images in the 947–1637 nm range. One hundred and seven cubic samples with the size of 4 cm were prepared from 14 boards. All samples were dried to various MCs during several steps until being completely dried. Hyperspectral images and weight measurements were acquired over each sample at each drying step. The samples have MC ranging from 1% to 137% (dry basis). The images were first calibrated into reflectance. Then, bad pixels were found and replaced by a corrected value using a median filter. A modified version of the boxplot method was used to find abnormal spectra that were then removed. The remaining spectra were converted into absorbance spectra. They were then split into a calibration and a validation data-set according to the boards they were extracted from to build and validate a partial least squares (PLS) regression model between the near-infrared absorbance spectra and the measured MCs. The PLS model was applied first to the sample images, then to the whole board images in order to produce 2D images of MC.     

Rotational position of curved saw logs and warp of the sawn timber

With the development of scanning technology in sawmills, it is possible to optimise log rotational position when sawing. However, choosing a different rotational position than horns down might be detrimental for the board shape after drying, especially for curved logs. Thus, there is a need to investigate at what level of log curve it is possible to freely rotate logs without causing board warp. This study was carried out through a test sawing that was conducted at a sawmill situated in the middle of Sweden. The tests were made on 177 Norway spruce logs, with varying amount of curve. Half of the logs were sawn in the horns-down position, half were sawn rotated perpendicular to horns down. Log shape and warp of the dried boards were measured. The results indicated a relationship between board spring, log curve and choice of rotational position. Furthermore, board bow was related to log curve but not rotational position. It can be concluded that for straight logs, with a bow height of less than 15 mm, an unconventional rotational position does not cause excess spring in the boards. Bow and twist are not affected by the rotational position at all.     

Emission of glycol ethers from medium-density fibreboard surfaces coated by a waterborne lacquer under different drying conditions

Abstract

The use of waterborne coatings has become increasingly popular in the furniture industry, as the use of organic solvents is going to be restricted according to a European Union directive. Waterborne coatings commonly need the use of up to 15% organic solvents to achieve proper film formation. The chemicals used usually have a lower vapour pressure than common solvents and may cause elevated emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during the first few weeks. This article describes the influence of temperature and relative humidity (RH) on later VOC emission during the lacquer drying of medium-density fibreboard. Twenty-seven boards were lacquered with a common industrial waterborne clear lacquer and dried under climatic conditions ranging from 20°C to 40°C, and 20% to 80% RH. The emission of VOCs was measured using a field and laboratory emission cell at 24 h, 72 h, 10 days and 28 days after drying. The cosolvents 2-butoxyethanol and 2-(2-ethoxyethoxy)ethanol were found. Their emission rates ranged from 400 to 16,000 µg m^?3. Boards dried at a higher temperature emitted significantly less than those dried at 20°C. Drying at high RH resulted in lower emission levels than drying at low RH. This is explained by a higher mass transfer between the liquid lacquer phase and the air. If the lacquer film is kept wet for a longer period, the organic cosolvent reservoir can be depleted during a longer time. These findings agree with the concept of critical RH derived by Dillon [Journal of Coatings Technology, 1977, 49(634), 38].     

Temperature distribution in lumber during impingement drying

Summary Techniques are described for measuring the surface temperature of drying lumber with a radiation thermometer and for measuring interior temperatures at various depths with 30-gauge (0.25 mm) thermocouples. Experimental results with 52 mm thick yellow poplar boards dried above 100°C with impinging jets of hot air over a range of temperatures are presented showing surface and interior temperatures and moisture content as functions of drying time. Surface temperatures rose rapidly to within 10 to 30° of dry-bulb temperature, and interior temperature at the center of the boards remained near 100°C until the boards dropped below 10 percent moisture content.Use of trade names does not constitute endorsement of the products by the USDA Forest Service.     

Discolouration and deformations of birch parquet boards during conventional drying

As a light coloured and relatively hard species of wood, birch is much in demand for wooden floors in Scandinavia. The problem with birch wood is that it easily becomes discoloured during conventional drying. Visual sorting by colour is impossible before the boards are processed into parquet blocks because the discolouration, except for yellowing of the surface, occurs inside the board. In addition to discolouration, harmful deformations occur in birch boards during drying. Colour changes and deformations were compared in birch parquet boards dried according to three different schedules. Received 16 April 1999     

Geometric model to predict twist in unrestrained boards

A theory has been developed for calculating the twist that develops in boards during drying without restraint, as well as the deformation in cross-section that accompanies the development of twist. Calculations require a knowledge of only a limited number of parameters: width, thickness and length of the board, annual ring orientation, distance from the pith, radial, tangential and longitudinal shrinkage coefficients, and the variation of spiral grain angle (SGA) with distance from the pith. The theory is derived from geometrical and physical principles and shows that a complicated interaction between all the above parameters gives rise to twist. A novel coordinate system is used that is better adapted to the fact that spiral grain lies at an angle to the log axis rather than the usual Cartesian or cylindrical polar coordinates. Unlike the finite element models that have recently been developed this theory does not allow for the effect of stresses that develop in a board, although the theory in its present form can easily be extended to incorporate this effect. The advantage of this theory over the more exact finite element models lies in its educational value in that it clearly identifies the mechanisms that are responsible for twist. An associated MS Excel spreadsheet allows rapid analysis of different scenarios such as the effect on twist of changing the shrinkage coefficients, annual ring orientations and moisture content. The theory predicts that for radiata pine 100×50 mm boards maximum twist occurs near the pith, and that the direction of twist reverses when the distance from the pith is greater than about 120 mm. These predictions are shown to agree with experiment. The theory also predicts that if a radiata pine log is live-sawn (through-and-through sawn) there will be two regions in the mature wood where the quartersawn boards will have large negative twist values, but that this can be avoided by cant- or grade-sawing. In contrast, the theory also predicts that if the SGA is constant at 4° from pith to bark, board twist will decrease smoothly from pith to bark for all annual ring orientations without ever becoming negative.     

A method for under-bark detection of the wood grain angle radial dependence

Abstract

Twist in wood, being closely related to spiral grain, may cause serious problems in building structures, furniture and joinery. It is therefore of great interest to sort out, at an early stage in the manufacturing process, trees, logs and boards that have an excess of spiral grain. The spiral grain pattern is described by a helical deviation of the fibre direction in relation to the longitudinal direction of a living tree or a log and seems to be an indicator for other defects such as compression wood. Remote microwave sensing of spiral grain has received a lot of interest during the past two decades. Its development has been impeded by the large variation with moisture content of the microwave properties of wood and by the complexity in modelling the electromagnetic field in a log with spiral grain. A review is presented of a direct method with no requirement for information on moisture content for boards. This procedure has recently been generalized to cylindrical logs and trees having a constant slope of the grain. A further generalization is presented here to allow for the normal spiral grain pattern with radially changing slope of grain in wood under bark. Based on this theory, a measurement procedure is proposed for the detection of wood grain angle with radial dependence, requiring no information on moisture content in the sapwood, which is also applicable to completely or partially frozen wood. A suitable application would be an instrument to use in the forest for measurements on living trees or logs.     

Cooling and steam conditioning after high-temperature drying of Pinus radiata board: experimental investigation and mathematical modelling

 Steam conditioning of softwood boards after kiln drying is of critical importance for relief of residual drying stresses and to improve distribution of final moisture content. The conditioning practice in New Zealand includes two steps: immediately after high temperature (HT) drying the load is cooled until the core wood temperature is 75 to 90°C, and then the stack is steam conditioned for a period of 1 to 4 hours depending on the lumber thickness and moisture content after drying. In this work, experimental and theoretical studies were performed to better understand the conditioning process and to investigate factors which influence its effectiveness. In the experiment, 50 mm thick Pinus radiata sapwood boards were first dried at 120/70°C for 11, 12, 13, 16 and 18 hours, respectively, to varying moisture contents, and then cooled and steam conditioned for 1 hour. To assess the effectiveness of conditioning, moisture pick-up, moisture gradient, and transverse residual drying stress (indicated by cup and strain) were measured. It was found that drying wood to a low moisture content (below 6%) increased the conditioning effectiveness. A separate matched stack was conditioned for 4 hours after 13 hours drying which showed better results than 1 hour conditioning. A mathematical model for wood drying was extended to include both the cooling and conditioning phases. The model was numerically solved to examine the wood temperature and moisture content changes during the whole process of drying, cooling and final steam conditioning. Increase in wood temperature, moisture pickup and moisture gradient during steam conditioning were predicted and validated by the experimental data. This information is currently being used at the New Zealand Forest Research Institute in simulation of stress development and relief for drying of Pinus radiata lumber. Received 6 July 1998     

Wood drying process: impact on Scots pine lumber durability

There are indications that the drying process may have negative effects on the natural durability of wood. The impact of various drying processes on the durability of Scots pine lumber has been evaluated with mass loss in a decay test with brown rot fungus, Coniophora puteana, as measure of the decay resistance of sapwood and inner and outer heartwood. Drying with or without steam conditioning was performed in six different series: air drying, kiln drying at temperature ranges commonly used in Swedish sawmills at 70°C and 90°C with two different regulation principles, and one high-temperature drying at 110°C. Durability varied considerably both between and within boards. Sapwood showed considerable less durability than heartwood. No difference in durability was found between inner heartwood and outer heartwood. Air-dried heartwood showed the highest durability compared to other drying series. The lowest durability in sapwood and heartwood was found for series dried at the 90°C temperature level with high material temperature early in drying. The interpretation is that the duration of high material temperature at high moisture content (MC) is the critical combination for decay resistance in heartwood. Steam conditioning after drying decreased durability in sapwood.     

The influences of log storage and kiln drying climate on the colour of non-steamed beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) wood

Abstract

Discolouration during the drying of non-steamed beech is a major industrial concern. The generally preferred yellow-white colour can easily develop a reddish or dull grey appearance during drying. In this study, the influences of log storage time and kiln drying climate on the colour of non-steamed sawn beech have been investigated and quantified. Samples 27×87 mm in cross section were dried in laboratory kilns and the average colour, in CIELAB colour space was measured on dry planed surfaces using a photoelectric colorimeter. Log storage for 13 weeks under low-temperature conditions had no visible effect. The reddish discolouration is mainly temperature related while the greyish discolouration is mainly controlled by the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) during the initial drying. Within the investigated climate interval, the EMC was twice as important as temperature for the final colour. Regression models developed show that, as long as the EMC is kept below 15%, a temperature of up to 37°C can be allowed without any visually detectable discolouration.     

人面子木材干燥特性及干燥工艺初探

采用百度试验法研究人面子木材的干燥特性,根据百度试验结果和企业的实际情况,拟定了相对偏软的24 mm和50 mm 2种厚度规格家具用材干燥工艺基准,进行了生产试验。24 mm厚人面子木材从初含水率85%干燥至12%,共用时506h,干燥质量良好,达到预期要求。针对50 mm厚毛边板材干燥速度慢,干燥不均匀,同一块板材内局部区域含水率异常偏高的现象,拟定了气干/窑干联合干燥工艺和相应的半波动窑干基准。     

Effect of mean moisture content on the steam reconditioning of collapsed <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucalyptus regnans</Emphasis>

Sixteen quarter-sawn boards (100 × 40 mm²) of regrowth Eucalyptus regnans (Mountain Ash) were conditioned to various moisture contents to investigate the effect of mean moisture content on collapse recovery. The results support the recommendation that boards should be reconditioned at a mean moisture content of between 15 and 20%. It is likely that the actual amount of collapse recovery was nearly as good for moisture contents up to about 25%. The main disadvantage with reconditioning boards with a moisture content of between 20 and 25% was the additional normal shrinkage that occurs because of the early reduction or removal of drying stresses. The samples in this study were dried under mild conditions for long periods of time to minimise the presence of moisture gradients.     

Effects of high drying temperatures and restraint on twist of larch (Larix)

During drying, timber changes its shape, mainly as a result of specific properties such as shrinkage anisotropy, radial differences in longitudinal shrinkage and spiral grain. The distortion, causing severe downgrading, can be reduced by restraining the timber and by using special drying schemes. The research described here is related to a project on the improvement of shape stability of Norway spruce. In the present part, different larch species from three stands were dried at high temperatures (80, 120 and 170°C). The effects of restraint during presteaming, drying and steaming on short-term twist reduction were investigated. The permanency of drying distortions was investigated in subsequent moisture cycling. Results showed a clear dependency of twist on the distance to pith. Restrained specimens sawn close to pith experienced reduced twist. This twist reduction was permanent during subsequent moisture variations. Drying temperature did not significantly influence twist and twist amplitude in moisture cycling.     

Effects of high drying temperatures and restraint on twist of larch (Larix)

Abstract

During drying, timber changes its shape, mainly as a result of specific properties such as shrinkage anisotropy, radial differences in longitudinal shrinkage and spiral grain. The distortion, causing severe downgrading, can be reduced by restraining the timber and by using special drying schemes. The research described here is related to a project on the improvement of shape stability of Norway spruce. In the present part, different larch species from three stands were dried at high temperatures (80, 120 and 170°C). The effects of restraint during presteaming, drying and steaming on short-term twist reduction were investigated. The permanency of drying distortions was investigated in subsequent moisture cycling. Results showed a clear dependency of twist on the distance to pith. Restrained specimens sawn close to pith experienced reduced twist. This twist reduction was permanent during subsequent moisture variations. Drying temperature did not significantly influence twist and twist amplitude in moisture cycling.     

Predicting spiral grain by computed tomography of Norway spruce

Spiral grain is a feature of wood that affects the shape of the sawn timber. Boards sawn from logs with a large spiral grain have a tendency to twist when the moisture content changes. The aim of this study was to investigate the possibility of predicting spiral grain based on variables that should be measurable with an X-ray LogScanner. The study was based on 49 Norway spruce (Picea abies) logs from three stands in Sweden. The logs were scanned with a computed tomography (CT) scanner every 10mm along the log. Concentric surfaces at various distances from the pith were then reconstructed from the stack of CT images. The spiral grain angle was measured in these concentric surface images, and a statistical model for predicting spiral grain was calibrated using partial least squares (PLS) regression. The PLS model predicts the spiral grain of a log at a distance 50mm from the pith based on different variables that should be measurable with an industrial X-ray LogScanner. The result was a PLS model withR ²=0.52 for the training set andR ²=0.37 for the test set. We concluded that it should be possible to predict the spiral grain of a log based on variables measured by an industrial X-ray LogScanner. The most important variables for predicting spiral grain were measures of sapwood content, variation in the ratio between the heartwood and log areas, and the standard deviation for the mean log density in 10mm thick cross slices along the log. The accuracy when sorting the logs into two groups with spiral grain of 2.0° and of <2.0°, respectively, was 84% of the correctly sorted logs.     

Effect of pre-drying schedule ramping on collapse recovery and internal checking with Victorian Ash eucalypts

Matched sample boards from 20 quarter-sawn boards of Victorian Ash (Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell and E. delegatensis R.T. Baker) were dried using three different levels of ramped pre-drying schedules to investigate the effects of moisture gradients on collapse recovery and internal checking. Prior to reconditioning, most wet cores were found in highly collapsed boards with low density. Reducing the gradients in these boards is crucial for recovering collapse and closing internal checks. If time allows the boards to be equilibrated prior to steam reconditioning, a target mean moisture content of ≤20% with a moisture gradient of close to 5% (core to surface moisture content) is likely to recover slightly more collapse than targeting a mean moisture content close to ≥15%. However, if time or kiln restraints limit equilibration it is likely to be better to target a percentage moisture content of closer to 15% in order to ensure that the core to surface moisture gradients are below 8–10%. The slight reduction in collapse recovery with this second approach is less important than the possibility that collapse and internal checks in the centre of boards with wet cores will not be closed. Care needs to be used with this latter approach not to over-dry some boards, since moisture contents below 15% will progressively reduce collapse recovery. For boards within these moisture content guidelines, the application of heat, rather than moisture pick-up, appears to be the most important component of the steaming reconditioning process. Hence, steaming only needs to be undertaken for long enough to heat the core of the board close to the target temperature of 100°C. A simple method for estimating this heat-up time for different thicknesses and species was demonstrated based on a key dimensionless group for heat transfer, the heat-transfer Fourier number.     

Microclimate and moisture content profile measurements in rain exposed Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) joints

In order to perform service life predictions of rain exposed wood structures, the moisture and temperature conditions in the structure need to be known as well as which degradation that occurs under those exposure conditions. The microclimate (the moisture conditions at the surface) is the boundary condition for moisture transport into the wood and depends on the detail design; joints between two pieces of wood can act as a water trap which give long durations of surface moisture after rain events and hinders drying. This study presents moisture content and microclimate measurements in three types of Norway spruce joints exposed to artificial rain in the laboratory. Both the microclimate (the duration of water on surfaces and in gaps) and the moisture content profiles were monitored. The microclimate was changed by changing the size of the gap between the two boards. The duration of water in the gap depended both on the gap size and on the permeability of the wood (sapwood/heartwood, end grain surface/side grain surface). In many cases, a larger gap width gave shorter durations of high moisture contents since a larger gap gave more favourable drying conditions, but the magnitude of this reduction varied between joint types.     

Twist of wood studs: dependence on spiral grain gradient

Distortions due to moisture changes during drying or in service are a major problem for construction timber. Twist, caused mainly by the cylindrical geometry, the orthotropic nature of the wood material, and the tendency of the wood fibers to grow in a spiral around the stem, is often regarded as the most detrimental distortion of sawn timber. There is a need for a basic mechanical understanding of how the twist distortion arises and also a need for a simple formula to predict the amount of twist distortion. In this article such a formula is proposed, and theory and experimental data that indicate the validity of the formula are shown. The first term in the formula is a modification of a traditional expression which is proportional to the mean value of the spiral grain angle in the cross section in question. The second term in the formula is new and is proportional to the gradient of the spiral grain angle, and this term normally counteracts the first term so that a stud with a left-handed spiral grain might achieve a right-handed twist. Linear elastic finite element method (FEM) results and comparisons with experimental data show that the formula works well and that linear FEM calculations exaggerate the twist, which is probably partly due to nonlinear effects. The formula could be used to predict the twist of sawn timber from measured spiral grain angles on the log surface.