黄土塬区盛果期苹果园的蒸散特征

[目的]水分是黄土高原地区植被恢复与农林产业持续发展的主要限制因子,通过对半湿润长武塬区苹果经济林的蒸散研究,掌握苹果林生长季的蒸散耗水规律,为区域性苹果经济林的科学管理及充分挖掘苹果林的生产潜力提供依据。[方法]运用水量平衡法于2012—2014年生长季期间(4月15日—10月15日)对苹果园进行蒸散量估算。其中,降水量由自动气象站实时观测,并结合人工观测数据,保证降水数据的连续性;同时,于每月15日和30日利用中子仪(CNC503B)监测0~6 m特定土层的土壤贮水量,其中0~100 cm阶段土层按每10 cm记录读数1次,100~600 cm土层按每20 cm记录读数1次,并利用土钻法进行校准。[结果]盛果期苹果园在生长季内蒸散量呈明显的双峰曲线,第一峰值出现在7月后半月或者8月前半月,第二峰值出现在9月前半月;2012,2013和2014年苹果生长季内的蒸散量占降水量的比例分别为103%,104%与99%;2012年的蒸散量高出降水量12.1 mm,2013年的蒸散量高出降水量18.2 mm,2014年的蒸散量小于降水量1.2 mm;苹果园蒸散量在生长季内的变异系数为1.0左右。[结论]在属于典型雨养农业区的长武塬区,自然降水是苹果经济林生态系统蒸散耗水的主要水分来源,降水量的多少直接影响着苹果的质量与数量。在枯水年(2012年)和偏枯的平水年(2013年),蒸散量大于降水量,即降水输入不能满足果园蒸散需水,土壤贮水表现为亏缺状态;在平水年(2014年),当年降水量可以满足果园蒸散耗水的要求。黄土塬区苹果园土壤水及蒸散对降雨产生快速水文响应机制,降落到林地的雨水迅速以土壤蒸发、植被蒸腾等形式进行水分输出。     

江西大岗山常绿阔叶林生态系统水量平衡的研究

采用水量平衡方法和集水区技术,利用2000年5月至2004年6月的观测资料,研究大岗山林区常绿阔叶林生态系统的水量平衡问题.结果表明:系统平均年输入降水1 772.7 mm,其中44%集中在4-6月,主要支出项为径流、蒸散及土壤蓄水,分别为854.3、852.5和65.9 mm,占降水的48.2%、48.1%和3.7%;林冠对降水的分配具有明显的季节变化,2002年在降水量大、降水强度和降水频率高的雨季(4-9月),林冠截留率偏小(16.5%),而在干旱季(当年10月至次年3月),截留率相当大(22.2%);集水区平均年径流输出总量为854.3 mm,径流系数为48.2%,其中地下径流为853.1 mm,地表径流仅为1.2 mm.     

章古台地区樟子松人工林水量平衡初步研究

为揭示樟子松人工林水量平衡规律,在辽宁省章古台地区,选择林龄为32 a、密度为404株/hm2的樟子松人工林,利用2 a（2010、2011）的观测结果,采用水量平衡方法对樟子松人工林的降水分配进行研究。结果表明：樟子松人工林内降水量、树干茎流量、林冠截留量分别为422.7、0.8、28.1 mm,占同期降水量的93.6%、0.2%、6.2%。樟子松蒸腾耗水量、枯落物＋林下植被＋土壤蒸散量、土壤贮水量变化量分别为116.1、287.3、20.1 mm,占同期降水量的25.7%、63.6%、4.5%;樟子松蒸腾耗水量占林地内蒸散量的28.8%,枯落物＋林下植被＋土壤蒸散量占林地内蒸散量的71.2%。     

浅谈在园林工程中如何节水

我国是一个水资源短缺的国家,且结构型缺水、资源型缺水、水质型缺水同时存在。从结构上,水源时空分布极不平衡,全国80%的水资源分布在占国土总面积36%的南方地区,20%的水资源则分布在占国土面积64%的北方地区。由于受季风气候影响降水过分集中,全国大部分地区每年汛期(6至9月)降水量占全年的60%至80%。从资源上,人均水量不及世界平均水平的1/4。从水质上,主要河流中Ⅰ类、Ⅱ类、Ⅲ类水只占60%,Ⅳ类、Ⅴ类、Ⅵ劣类水占到40%。     

多伦县植被覆盖空间格局及动态变化研究

借助ENVI 4.3及GIS10.0软件,估算了多伦县2000年、2005年和2009年3期植被覆盖度,并结合研究区年平均降雨量变化趋势,分析得出:从空间分布格局上来说,多伦县植被覆盖处于良好状态,绝大部分地区已达40%以上,属中覆盖类型,而植被覆盖度较低的地区主要集中在该区西北部,且呈零星分布,说明该区林业工程生态效益明显;其次,从动态变化趋势上来分析,可以看出2000-2009年间,研究区植被覆盖度总体上呈现增加趋势,但后期(2005-2009年)较前期(2000-2005年)而言,增加幅度有所较小,这与该时段年平均降雨量变化相一致。     

基于特征空间的蒸散反演方法在中国北方地区的比较与应用

【目的】通过验证和比较来选定适合于中国北方地区的蒸散反演方法,旨在为改进蒸散的算法提供支持并初步认识中国北方地区蒸散的时空分布规律。【方法】使用中等分辨率成像光谱仪(MODIS)的遥感影像、气象观测资料以及干旱-半干旱区协同观测的地表蒸散通量数据,对Jiang等(1999)、Wang等(2006)和Roerink等(2000)这3种特征空间方法进行验证与比较,在选定适合试验区的方法后,计算和分析中国北方地区蒸散的空间分布与季节变化特征。【结果】在中国北方地区,由Wang等(2006)方法反演得到的蒸发比相关性最高,误差最小(R~2=0.65,RMSE=0.17);受地表温度随海拔升高而降低的影响,Jiang等(1999)和Roerink等(2000)的方法在高海拔地区普遍存在高估的现象;基于Wang等(2006)的方法反演得到蒸发比,通过运算得出中国北方地区的蒸散空间分布,回归分析表明,该方法得出的蒸散结果精度较高(R~2=0.57,RMSE=0.78 mm·d~(-1));在不同季节,蒸散在空间上都表现出东高西低的特征;夏季最高,春季略高于秋季,冬季最小;在冬季,大部分地区蒸散在0.5 mm·d~(-1)以下;在春季,除西北地区的准噶尔、柴达木、塔里木等沙漠区域外,其余地区都有较明显的蒸散活动,大部分区域达到了0.8 mm·d~(-1)以上;在夏季,整个区域蒸散达到全年最大值,绝大部分地区蒸散强度在1.5 mm·d~(-1)以上;在秋季,蒸散明显回落,除华北地区和秦岭一带保持在1~2.5 mm·d~(-1)之外,其余地区蒸散大多在1 mm·d~(-1)以下。【结论】Wang等(2006)的方法可以在克服海拔对地表温度产生影响的同时,保持特征空间法中对地面气象参数精度要求不高的优点,能够更好地模拟中国北方地区蒸散的空间分布,适于在下垫面复杂、海拔落差大的地区使用。     

广西不同生态地理区域杉木林水量平衡的研究

本文在进行了１０年森林气候和地面径流观测基础上，研究了桂东北低山，桂东南低山及桂中３个区域杉木林的水量平衡。结果是：３个区域杉木林水量平衡都以蒸散量为最大支出项，都由桂东北→桂东南→桂中增大。下渗土层水量居支出项第二，分布规律与蒸散量相反，地面径流（深）为最小支出项，分布规律与蒸散量一致。但是幼龄的杉木林例外，其径流量最大，下渗土层水量最小。水资源生态效益则以桂东北为最好.?     

基于GIS的重庆市酸雨时空分布及变化特征研究

利用重庆市46个酸雨监测站2011～2016年的酸雨监测数据,基于地理信息系统(GIS)技术,对重庆市2011～2016年的酸雨时空分布及变化特征进行了研究,旨在为环境管理和决策提供技术支持和科学依据。结果表明:重庆市酸雨区主要分布在西部、主城区、中部地区,非酸雨区主要分布在东北部和东南部;降水平均pH低值中心位于大足区、涪陵区,降水平均pH高值中心位于城口县、石柱县、武隆区、秀山县;2011～2016年间,重庆市大部分地区酸雨强度明显减弱,酸雨频率明显下降,可见重庆市酸雨污染明显改善。     

气候变化背景下中国南方喀斯特地区NPP时空变化

基于中国南方8省区喀斯特地区卫星遥感和地面气象观测资料,分析气候变化背景下中国南方喀斯特地区2000-2011年间的NPP时空变化规律,及不同土地利用类型NPP变化.结果表明:在气候变化背景下,2000-2005年间,研究区NPP值总体呈上升趋势,在2005年发生转折,2006-2011年间,NPP值总体呈下降趋势;喀斯特地区NPP的变化幅度明显大于非喀斯特区;农田、低密度灌木林、混合用地等土地利用类型对石漠化反应敏感.     

山西太行山不同林龄油松林的水量平衡

采用空间代替时间的方法,对太行山油松中龄林(22年生)和成熟林(58年生)水量平衡组分的季节性变化进行同步观测,探讨林龄对生态系统蒸散及水量平衡的影响。结果表明:油松中龄林、成熟林生长季总蒸散(包括蒸腾、蒸发和截留)量分别为406.87和418.49mm,水分总支出量分别为431.07和459.57mm,均无明显差异,但蒸散和支出组分不同,成熟林乔木层蒸腾量、乔木层截留量、枯落物截留量、地表径流量各自占降雨量(445.4mm)的比率比中龄林分别下降了6.01%,2.21%,0.81%和0.26%,而灌草群落蒸散量、土壤出流量和灌草层截留量各自占降雨量的比率比中龄林分别增加了8.80%,3.87%和2.94%。林龄变化主要改变了蒸散和水分支出各组分的贡献率,而不是其总量;成熟林生长季土壤含水量略有下降,而中龄林小幅增加。     

Growth of Phlebiopsis gigantea in wood of seven conifer species

Heterobasidion parviporum and Heterobasidion annosum are widely distributed root‐rot fungi that infect conifers throughout Europe. Infection of conifer stumps by spores of these pathogens can be controlled by treating fresh stumps with a competing non‐pathogenic fungus, Phlebiopsis gigantea. In this study, growth of three Latvian strains of P. gigantea and the biological control agent ‘Rotstop’ strain was evaluated in stem pieces of Norway spruce, Scots pine, lodgepole pine, Douglas‐fir, Weymouth pine, Siberian larch and Sitka spruce. The growth rates of one H. parviporum and one H. annosum isolate were also measured in the same stem pieces. The growth rate of P. gigantea varied greatly in wood of different conifer species. It was higher in the three pine species, lower in Norway spruce and lowest in Sitka spruce and Siberian larch, and in Douglas‐fir, this fungus did not grow. The largest area of wood occupied by P. gigantea was in lodgepole pine. Growth of Latvian isolates of P. gigantea in the wood of Pinus and Picea species was comparable to that of the Rotstop isolate. Consequently, stump treatment with local P. gigantea isolates should be recommended. However, our results suggest that Douglas‐fir stump treatment against Heterobasidion by P. gigantea may be ineffective and other stump treatment methods should be considered.     

Growth of Mixed Birch-Coniferous Stands in Relation to Pure Coniferous Stands at Similar Sites in South-eastern Norway

Mean age, mean and top heights and yield were studied in 20 mixed stands of birch ( Betula pubescens Ehrh. and B. pendula Roth) and Picea abies (L.) Karst. and nine mixed stands of birch and Pinus sylvestris L. in south-eastern Norway. Each mixed stand and the adjacent pure coniferous stand (control) were growing under the same site conditions and had not been commercially thinned. There were no significant differences in mean age at breast height or in top heights between birch and conifers in the mixed stands, while mean height was significantly higher for birch than for spruce. A growth index was calculated based on total volume and age at breast height. For the spruce sites the growth in young mixed stands (birch < 17 m) was superior to that of pure spruce, while the difference was insignificant in older stands. The growth index correlated positively with the ratio between generatively and vegetatively regenerated birch trees, and negatively with the age of the oldest species in the mixture and with site quality. For the pine sites there was no significant difference in the growth index between mixed birch-pine and pure pine stands. A mixture effect of birch on the volume yield of spruce or pine could not be demonstrated.     

Defoliation by the Needle-shortening Pine Gall Midge,Thecodiplosis brachyntera,on Pines in Central Sweden

An outbreak of the needle-shortening pine gall midge, Thecodiplosis brachyntera , occurred on Scots pine, Pinus sylvestris (L.) and lodgepole pine, P. contorta (Dougl.) in central Sweden during 1995-1998. The larval feeding of T. brachyntera kills current-year needles and heavy infestation causes severe defoliation. A pattern of fluctuating defoliation among years and sites was found on both pine species. Defoliation was evenly distributed in the crown of P. sylvestris during years of high as well as low infestation; apical whorls had as much defoliation as basal whorls. In P. contorta , however, there was a tendency for defoliation to be concentrated on branches in the most apical whorls. Growth ring increments on P. sylvestris with high levels of defoliation (71%) did not differ from trees with moderate levels (26%) of defoliation. Shoot lengths were significantly shorter, however, on heavily infested trees the year after defoliation.     

Decomposition and nutrient loss from prunings of different contour hedgerow species in tea plantations in the sloping highlands of Sri Lanka

Contour hedgerows of multipurpose tree species in the sloping tea lands of Sri Lanka are expected to reduce soil erosion and also add significant amounts of plant nutrients to the soil via periodic prunings. The objective of this experiment was to characterize the biomass decomposition pattern and quantify the amount of nutrients added through prunings of six tree species (Calliandra calothyrsus, Senna spectabilis, Euphatorium innulifolium, Flemingia congesta, Gliricidia sepium and Tithonia diversifolia) currently being used in hedgerows associated with tea. Withered leaf and stem prunings (50 g) were enclosed in 2-mm litter bags, placed at 5-cm depth and retrieved after one, three, six, nine and 12 weeks. Loss of initial dry weight, N, P and K was measured. Single exponential decay function adequately described both dry weight and nutrient loss. Tree species differed significantly in their rate of breakdown with decomposition constants (k) varying from 0.0299 to 0.2006 week⁻¹ for leaves and from 0.0225 to 0.0633 week⁻¹ for stems. Gliricidia showed the highest k for leaves with the rest in the following descending order: Senna > Tithonia ≥ Euphatorium > Calliandra > Flemingia. A similar pattern was observed for loss of all nutrients with Calliandra and Flemingia always having lower k values than the rest. Although N immobilization was not observed, immobilization of P and K was observed during the first week of incubation in some species, particularly in stem prunings. Annual biomass of prunings differed significantly between tree species in the following descending order: Calliandra > Senna > Flemingia > Tithonia > Gliricidia > Euphatorium. Calliandra added the greatest amount of nutrients annually to the soil with Euphatorium adding the least. Calliandra prunings provided the annual total K requirement and 49% of the N requirement of mature tea. However, none of the species provided more than 5% of the P requirement. It is concluded that among the tree species tested, Calliandra and Flemingia are the most suitable for contour hedgerows in tea plantations of this agroclimatic region because of their higher soil nutrient enrichment capacity and slower decomposition rates which would minimize leaching losses. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Effects of Seed Weight and Seed Type on Early Seedling Growth of Pinus sylvestris under Harsh and Optimal Conditions

The effects of seed weight and seed type on seedling growth of Pinus sylvestris (L.) were studied by seeding individually weighed orchard and stand seed in different mixtures under harsh (direct seeding in field) and optimal (seeding in nursery) conditions. In the nursery experiment an increase in the seed weight from 3 to 7 mg increased the seedling height by 10-27% and total weight by 27-113%, and decreased the height/diameter ratio by 5-6% after 2 yrs. With elimination of seed weight effects, orchard seedlings were 2% taller than stand seedlings in year 2. Without elimination of seed weight effects, orchard seedlings were 7-13% taller. In the field experiment an increase in the seed weight from 3 to 7 mg increased seedling height by 18-65%, stem volume by 81-274% and the number of top-buds by 23-34% in year 5. After elimination of seed weight effects, orchard seedlings were 7-13% taller than stand seedlings and without elimination of seed weight effects 20-21% taller after 5 yrs. Even after elimination of both seed weight and genetic effects orchard seedlings were 3-9% larger than stand seedlings in the field experiment. In conclusion, the influence of seed weight and seed type on growth traits and slenderness is highly significant and the influence seems to be greater in harsh conditions.     

Modelling of adequate pretwist for obtaining straight timber

Abstract

Wood in general and wooden studs in particular are often distorted owing to uneven shrinkage during the drying process in the sawmill. Twist is often the most detrimental of all types of distortion, and it is caused by spiral grain in combination with variations in moisture content. For sawmills, the objective is to produce dried, straight boards, and one method of dealing with boards with excessive spiral grain is to sort them out and then dry them in a pretwisted position to obtain straight boards after drying. A model using the finite element (FE) method for the simulation of drying twist distortions was first calibrated against laboratory experiments in which boards were dried with and without restraints and pretwists. After the calibration, the FE results were compared with industrial test results for boards that were dried without restraints or with restraints with zero pretwist, i.e. straight restraints. The FE model used an elastic–ideally plastic material model to obtain permanent deformations. The calibration was to set the yield stresses so that there was a good match between FE results and results from the laboratory experiments. The comparison between the industrial test results and the FE results showed that the FE model is capable of realistic simulations of drying boards with and without restraints and presumably also pretwists.     

Potential to harness superior nutritional qualities of exotic baobabs if local adaptation can be conferred through grafting

Baobab leaves form an important part of the local diet in Sahel countries and elsewhere in Africa. Existing leaf nutritional data and agroforestry performance information are based solely on Adansonia digitata L., the baobab of continental Africa. The introduction potential of Adansonia species from the center of diversity in Madagascar and from Australia remains untapped. To assess this potential, the mineral contents and B₁ and B₂ vitamin levels of dried baobab leaves were determined for five-year old trees of A. digitata, A. gibbosa (A. Cunn.) Guymer ex D. Baum, A. rubrostipa Jum. & H. Perrier (syn. A. fony Baill.), A. perrieri Capuron and A. za Baill. grown in an introduction trial in Mali. Nutritional data were evaluated against survival and vigor to identify promising germplasm. Leaf vitamin and crude protein contents were highest in the Madagascar species, especially A. rubrostipa (B₁ 88 mg 100 g⁻¹, B₂ 187 mg 100 g⁻¹, protein 20.7% dry weight). However, the local species far outperformed the introductions in survival, tree height, basal diameter and resistance to termites. We suggest grafting as a way of harnessing the vigor of well-adapted local baobab varieties to the superior nutritional profiles of A. rubrostipa and others. Cross-species grafting tests in Adansonia were successful, thus creating new agroforestry possibilities with different scion/rootstock combinations.     

Biogeochemical impacts of clearfelling and reforestation on blanket-peatland streams: II. major ions and dissolved organic carbon

Streams and drains in blanket-peatland forest in western Ireland were sampled weekly over 5 years, 1996–2000, using continuous, depth-proportional passive sampling. Analysis was for pH, alkalinity by Gran titration, anions by IC, metals by ICP, aluminium speciation by loaded-resin exchange, and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) by absorbance at 320 nm.

Effects of felling are identified graphically from two forest drains whose catchments (both about 1 ha) were clearfelled, and partial clearfelling of one larger catchment (somewhat over 1 km²), in summer 1999. Calcium concentrations and alkalinity were increased in the drain- and streamwater from the felled areas. The pH was increased in drains, while in the larger stream, pH range decreased while the mean increased. Phosphorus increased markedly with clearfell, in the absence of recent fertilising, and also increased with fertilising; these results are reported in an accompanying paper. Ammonium-nitrogen concentrations were increased in the two drains with felling, and temporarily decreased in the larger stream. Nitrate increased in some cases. Potassium and manganese concentrations also increased. Concentrations of DOC and organic monomeric aluminium increased gradually, subject to a continuing strong annual cycle. There were no clearfelling effects on concentrations of solphate, suspended solids or inorganic monomeric aluminium. In the two drains (fully clearfelled), concentrations of sodium, chloride and magnesium, and conductivity, were all reduced after felling. Fertilising effects other than for phosphorus were indistinct.

Effects of the combined clearfell–reforestation treatment were testable statistically, using randomised intervention analysis, between two larger streams (1 km²) as a treatment–control comparison. There were statistically significant positive responses in streamwater concentrations of nitrate, potassium, calcium, DOC and aluminium fractions. The implications for management practice depend on whether the loss of nutrients is sustainable for future crop productivity, and whether critical limits and loads of receiving ecosystems are exceeded.     

Effect of Drought on Growth and Mortality of Actively Growing Norway Spruce Container Seedlings Planted in Summer

Survival, root egress and height growth of 13-month-old actively growing Norway spruce ( Picea abies (L.) Karst.) container seedlings exposed to preplanting drying treatments (0, 4, and 8 days) and postplanting drought periods (1, 2, 3, and 4 weeks) were studied in the field between 5 July and 18 August 1999. The mortality of seedlings increased and the height growth and root egress decreased throughout the postplanting drought period. Postplanting performance was also affected by preplanting drying treatments. The results indicate that no risk of excessive mortality and growth restrictions occurs when actively growing seedlings are planted in summer, provided that seedlings are well watered before planting and the drought period does not exceed 3 weeks.     

Rehabilitation of diseased cacao fields in Peru through shade regulation and timing of biocontrol measures

The objective of this case study was to test the effectiveness of biocontrol for the rehabilitation of abandoned, diseased (moniliasis, witches' broom and black pod) cocoa and to develop testable hypotheses regarding the effect of shade and biocontrol timing. Three trial fields differed in their shade regimes. Biocontrol was administered starting either at flowering or pod filling. Disease incidence and yield were compared with cultural control alone. Biocontrol reduced moniliasis from 49% to 25%, independent of the shading regime and application time. Witches' broom was most severe without shade and unaffected by biocontrol. No significant effects on black pod were observed. Although biocontrol increased percentage healthy fruit independent of shading and timing, only the shaded plot with biocontrol from flowering onwards responded with increased yield. Our hypothesis is: 'In the rehabilitation of abandoned cacao, only fields under sustainable shade management and early onset of biocontrol can realise their production potential.' This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.