4种乔木根系不同埋根方式根-土复合体的抗剪特性

在固定的土壤含水量和干密度条件下,分别选取直径3,5和7 mm的落叶松、油松、白桦和蒙古栎根系,采用水平埋根、垂直埋根和复合埋根的方式制备直径为101 mm的根土复合体试样;应用全自动三轴压缩仪,设定围压分别为200,400和600 kPa,对试样进行固结不排水试验,评价埋根方式和根系直径对土壤抗剪强度的影响。结果表明：加根复合体的抗剪强度明显大于素土,抗剪强度随着埋根直径的增加而增大,土壤抗剪强度表现为复合根复合体＞水平根复合体＞垂直根复合体。植物根系在土壤中形成横纵交错的状态对减少滑坡等自然灾害可起到更好的作用。     

根系分布方式对根-土复合体抗剪强度的影响

通过对香根草根-土复合体的室内直剪试验,探讨了根系直径和分布方式对根-土复合体抗剪强度的影响。研究发现,在其它条件相同的情况下,垂直加斜交等量布根时,复合体的抗剪强度最高;垂直加水平等量布根时,其抗剪强度最低;其它布根方式时,其抗剪强度介于上述二者之间。研究表明,根系分布方式对根-土复合体的粘聚力的影响是非常明显的,而对其内摩擦角的影响却并不明显。同时,在相同根系数量和布根方式条件下,随着根系直径的增大根-土复合体的抗剪强度及内摩擦角先增大后减小。当根系直径达到某一值时,根-土复合体的抗剪强度达到最大值。研究结果对进一步探索生态护坡工程中根-土复合体的抗剪强度形成机理具有重要的理论意义,也为生态护坡工程的强度和边坡稳定分析提供了理论依据。     

季冻区边坡表层粉质粘土力学指标影响因素室内试验研究

本文通过室内三轴试验研究冻融作用下边坡表层粉质粘土土体随含水量、密实度、冻融次数、是否存在植物根系等不同条件下土的力学指标变化规律,对提高季冻区边坡防护效果具有一定的理论指导意义。研究结果表明:(1)土体主应力差在植物根系作用下明显提高,在含水率13%左右提高明显;加根土主应力差随土的密实度增加而显著提高。(2)含水率较小时,土体黏聚力随含水率的增加而增大,当含水率在13%左右时,黏聚力最大,当含水率大于13%后,黏聚力开始随含水率增加而减小。植物根系作用下粘聚力随土体密实度增加而增大。(3)随含水率增加土体内摩擦角减小,含水率越大内摩擦角减小幅度越大。含水率较大时植物根系对土体内摩擦角影响较小;含水率较小和密实度较大时植物根系对提高土内摩擦角作用明显。     

林草混交根-土复合体的抗剪强度特性

通过对香根草和小叶女贞两种不同植物根系构成的根土复合体及两种植物混交根系构成的根土复合体分别进行了系列直剪试验研究,探索了在不同含水率及不同含根比的情况下,植物根系对复合体抗剪强度的影响规律。研究表明,草本植物香根草以及木本植物小叶女贞的根系都能提高根土复合体的抗剪强度,但二者对复合体抗剪强度指标的贡献是不同的,且混交根土复合体的抗剪强度仍符合库伦强度理论。在此基础上,本研究提出了根土复合体的内摩擦角随小叶女贞含根比变化的幂函数关系式。以上研究为进一步探索林草一体化高稳定护坡技术,具有重要的理论意义。     

基于植物生长过程的根系固土机制及Wu模型参数优化

【目的】为提高植物根系固土效果模型量化的准确性,针对植物根系在土壤中受破坏的不同方式,基于植物生长过程的根土复合体直剪试验,利用根的拔出与抗拉试验,分析根系在不同生长时期的受力机制,定量评估植物根系对土壤的加固效果。【方法】在原有直剪仪器的基础上,设计了一套分离式、可测定盆栽植物根系固土效果的装置。将12棵3年生山矾幼树样本直接种植于直剪盒,针对移植后1个月、4个月和1年后山矾根系的单根抗拉强度、拔出强度和根土复合体的抗剪强度进行测定,建立植物单根直径与单根抗拉强度、拔出强度的关系曲线。在时间尺度上,研究影响其根系固土的相关参数变化,分析根系与土壤的相互作用机制和根系的破坏情况,并优化现有Wu模型,并尝试评估动态生长过程中的根系固土效果。【结果】1)植物根系固土效果受抗拉强度与拔出强度的共同影响,在植物的生长的过程中,拔出强度对固土效果的影响比抗拉强度更加显著;2)随着植物种植时间的增加,4个月后根土复合体的抗剪切强度显著增加,1年后根土复合体的抗剪切强度较前4个月增长放缓。根土复合体发生剪切破坏后,根系发生断裂破坏的概率随种植时间的增加而增加。3)将根系抗拉和拔出强度2个参数加入到植物根系固土模型的计算中,可以更好地反映植物根系固土效果,特别是对于植物移植生长过程,模型计算结果与实际值平均相差仅为8.13%。【结论】植物根系在1年的生长周期内,根系数量不会发生较大变化,根系抗拉强度由其材料属性决定,也不会发生较大变化。而根系与土壤间的键合则变得更加紧密,根系的拔出强度增加显著,更多的根系在土壤发生破坏时发生断裂,最终提高根系加固土壤的效果。     

不同降雨强度下植被护坡对边坡位移的影响

为研究不同降雨强度下植物根系对边坡土体位移的控制效果,采用PLAXIS 3D有限元软件对3种降雨强度下植物根系固土边坡进行数值模拟计算,结果表明:边坡未采用植物根系护坡时,降雨会导致边坡表层土体发生较大位移,土体位移增大范围包含整个坡面。边坡采用植物根系护坡时,能有效减少边坡表层土体位移,边坡土体位移增大范围比无根系防护边坡明显减小,主要分布在边坡坡面中上部。降雨强度为5,10和20 mm/h时,植物根系固土边坡土体最大位移相比无根系防护边坡减小幅度分别为89.8%,80.3%和71.8%,可见降雨条件下植物根系能够有效控制边坡土体位移,但随着降雨强度增大,植物根系对边坡表层土体位移的控制效果会有所减弱。对边坡进行稳定性分析可知,植物根系的存在能有效提高边坡浅层范围内土体的抗剪强度,从而使边坡表层土体塑性点数量减少;还能显著减小发生滑坡时的偏应变增量,并且缩小潜在滑动面的发生区域,提升边坡的稳定性。为了保证强降雨条件下边坡稳定性,提出了植物根系结合锚杆支护的综合护坡方式,该支护方式能够有效降低强降雨条件下边坡土体的位移,增强边坡稳定性。     

根系对边坡土体抗崩解能力影响的试验研究

通过对模型箱根—土的试验研究,探索了混合种植林草的边坡土体的初始含水量、边坡坡度及有效根密度等对边坡土体抗崩解能力的影响。研究结果表明:边坡土体的抗崩解能力不但与边坡坡度和土体的初始含水量有关,更与边坡土体中的有效根密度有关;在一定的初始含水量条件下,土体抗崩解能力随着有效根密度的增大而呈幂函数增长趋势;在此基础上提出了不同初始含水量和不同有效根密度条件下土壤完全崩解所需时间的计算公式。研究结果为揭示植物根系对边坡稳定性的增强机理提供了理论基础,也对促进生态护坡和植物边坡的水土保持等技术的发展具有一定的理论及工程应用价值。     

四川山矾根系分支节点对根系固土效益的影响

【目的】研究根系形态学参数和力学参数对固土效果的影响,进一步了解根-土相互作用机制和固土机制。【方法】利用改装过的万能试验机测定四川山矾根系的抗拉强度、杨氏模量、摩擦力等力学特性,利用自制的大盒直剪装置测定含根土样本的抗剪强度。分析根系形态学参数与力学特性参数的关系。【结果】1)四川山矾的根直径与根长、抗拉强度、杨氏模量和拔出力都符合幂函数关系。其中,根直径与抗拉强度和杨氏模量呈负相关,根直径与根长、拔出力呈正相关。2)四川山矾根系分支节点数的增加,可显著提高根系拔出力,但分支节点对单位根长度拔出力的影响较小。3)四川山矾根系分支节点的增加,可显著提高根系的土壤加固效果,每存在1个分支节点可提高根系附加抗剪强度约50%。分支节点的增加可显著提高单位根长和根直径的附加抗剪强度。4)主成分分析发现,对根系附加抗剪强度的极值影响最大的参数为根长之和,而对根系附加抗剪强度的屈服值影响最大的参数为根直径之和。【结论】四川山矾根系分支节点的存在对根系的拔出强度和最终的固土效果都有显著影响,是根系固土效果定量研究中的重要参数,这对理解和分析边坡植物根系加固土壤的机制有重要意义。     

干旱山区油松幼林根系分布特征研究

笔者以不同树龄油松为研究对象,采用剖面挖掘与分层取样法,研究了2年生、3年生、4年生、5年生、6年生油松的根系。结果表明,随着树龄增大,根系在垂直方向上,随着深度增加分布范围变大;水平分布范围随深度变化不明显。在垂直方向上,根生物量随着土层深度的增加先增大后减小,呈现倒V的变化趋势;随着树龄增大,油松根系生物量显著增大。在0 cm～10 cm土层内,很少有细根;而在30 cm以下的土层内,只有细根和近似细根的根。2年生、3年生油松幼苗的根生物量主要分布在0 cm～20 cm土层内,4年生、5年生、6年生油松根生物量主要分布于0 cm～30 cm土层内。其中,土壤质地条件是影响根系分布的一个重要因素。     

应用分形维数研究狗牙根根系边坡固坡效应

植物根系形态非常复杂,很难定量确定根系对边坡土体的防护作用。笔者选择常见护坡植物狗牙根为研究对象,根据自主研发的分形维数计算软件确定狗牙根根系分形维数,提出基于根系分形特征的固土机理数值分析方法,将根土复合体当作由土体、根系所联系起来的有机体,研究在雨水侵蚀力和坡面径流侵蚀力作用下,不同根系分形特征对土体位移场的影响。根据根系分形维数与表层位移关系曲线,建立分形维数与边坡土体稳定性的相互关系,明确边坡植入狗牙根根系对表层土体稳定性影响,研究结果表明,分形维数与数值计算相结合,能够反映植物根系形态对边坡表层土体位移的影响,对于植物生态边坡的设计与施工具有现实的指导意义。     

Growth of Phlebiopsis gigantea in wood of seven conifer species

Heterobasidion parviporum and Heterobasidion annosum are widely distributed root‐rot fungi that infect conifers throughout Europe. Infection of conifer stumps by spores of these pathogens can be controlled by treating fresh stumps with a competing non‐pathogenic fungus, Phlebiopsis gigantea. In this study, growth of three Latvian strains of P. gigantea and the biological control agent ‘Rotstop’ strain was evaluated in stem pieces of Norway spruce, Scots pine, lodgepole pine, Douglas‐fir, Weymouth pine, Siberian larch and Sitka spruce. The growth rates of one H. parviporum and one H. annosum isolate were also measured in the same stem pieces. The growth rate of P. gigantea varied greatly in wood of different conifer species. It was higher in the three pine species, lower in Norway spruce and lowest in Sitka spruce and Siberian larch, and in Douglas‐fir, this fungus did not grow. The largest area of wood occupied by P. gigantea was in lodgepole pine. Growth of Latvian isolates of P. gigantea in the wood of Pinus and Picea species was comparable to that of the Rotstop isolate. Consequently, stump treatment with local P. gigantea isolates should be recommended. However, our results suggest that Douglas‐fir stump treatment against Heterobasidion by P. gigantea may be ineffective and other stump treatment methods should be considered.     

Growth of Mixed Birch-Coniferous Stands in Relation to Pure Coniferous Stands at Similar Sites in South-eastern Norway

Mean age, mean and top heights and yield were studied in 20 mixed stands of birch ( Betula pubescens Ehrh. and B. pendula Roth) and Picea abies (L.) Karst. and nine mixed stands of birch and Pinus sylvestris L. in south-eastern Norway. Each mixed stand and the adjacent pure coniferous stand (control) were growing under the same site conditions and had not been commercially thinned. There were no significant differences in mean age at breast height or in top heights between birch and conifers in the mixed stands, while mean height was significantly higher for birch than for spruce. A growth index was calculated based on total volume and age at breast height. For the spruce sites the growth in young mixed stands (birch < 17 m) was superior to that of pure spruce, while the difference was insignificant in older stands. The growth index correlated positively with the ratio between generatively and vegetatively regenerated birch trees, and negatively with the age of the oldest species in the mixture and with site quality. For the pine sites there was no significant difference in the growth index between mixed birch-pine and pure pine stands. A mixture effect of birch on the volume yield of spruce or pine could not be demonstrated.     

Defoliation by the Needle-shortening Pine Gall Midge,Thecodiplosis brachyntera,on Pines in Central Sweden

An outbreak of the needle-shortening pine gall midge, Thecodiplosis brachyntera , occurred on Scots pine, Pinus sylvestris (L.) and lodgepole pine, P. contorta (Dougl.) in central Sweden during 1995-1998. The larval feeding of T. brachyntera kills current-year needles and heavy infestation causes severe defoliation. A pattern of fluctuating defoliation among years and sites was found on both pine species. Defoliation was evenly distributed in the crown of P. sylvestris during years of high as well as low infestation; apical whorls had as much defoliation as basal whorls. In P. contorta , however, there was a tendency for defoliation to be concentrated on branches in the most apical whorls. Growth ring increments on P. sylvestris with high levels of defoliation (71%) did not differ from trees with moderate levels (26%) of defoliation. Shoot lengths were significantly shorter, however, on heavily infested trees the year after defoliation.     

Decomposition and nutrient loss from prunings of different contour hedgerow species in tea plantations in the sloping highlands of Sri Lanka

Contour hedgerows of multipurpose tree species in the sloping tea lands of Sri Lanka are expected to reduce soil erosion and also add significant amounts of plant nutrients to the soil via periodic prunings. The objective of this experiment was to characterize the biomass decomposition pattern and quantify the amount of nutrients added through prunings of six tree species (Calliandra calothyrsus, Senna spectabilis, Euphatorium innulifolium, Flemingia congesta, Gliricidia sepium and Tithonia diversifolia) currently being used in hedgerows associated with tea. Withered leaf and stem prunings (50 g) were enclosed in 2-mm litter bags, placed at 5-cm depth and retrieved after one, three, six, nine and 12 weeks. Loss of initial dry weight, N, P and K was measured. Single exponential decay function adequately described both dry weight and nutrient loss. Tree species differed significantly in their rate of breakdown with decomposition constants (k) varying from 0.0299 to 0.2006 week⁻¹ for leaves and from 0.0225 to 0.0633 week⁻¹ for stems. Gliricidia showed the highest k for leaves with the rest in the following descending order: Senna > Tithonia ≥ Euphatorium > Calliandra > Flemingia. A similar pattern was observed for loss of all nutrients with Calliandra and Flemingia always having lower k values than the rest. Although N immobilization was not observed, immobilization of P and K was observed during the first week of incubation in some species, particularly in stem prunings. Annual biomass of prunings differed significantly between tree species in the following descending order: Calliandra > Senna > Flemingia > Tithonia > Gliricidia > Euphatorium. Calliandra added the greatest amount of nutrients annually to the soil with Euphatorium adding the least. Calliandra prunings provided the annual total K requirement and 49% of the N requirement of mature tea. However, none of the species provided more than 5% of the P requirement. It is concluded that among the tree species tested, Calliandra and Flemingia are the most suitable for contour hedgerows in tea plantations of this agroclimatic region because of their higher soil nutrient enrichment capacity and slower decomposition rates which would minimize leaching losses. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Effects of Seed Weight and Seed Type on Early Seedling Growth of Pinus sylvestris under Harsh and Optimal Conditions

The effects of seed weight and seed type on seedling growth of Pinus sylvestris (L.) were studied by seeding individually weighed orchard and stand seed in different mixtures under harsh (direct seeding in field) and optimal (seeding in nursery) conditions. In the nursery experiment an increase in the seed weight from 3 to 7 mg increased the seedling height by 10-27% and total weight by 27-113%, and decreased the height/diameter ratio by 5-6% after 2 yrs. With elimination of seed weight effects, orchard seedlings were 2% taller than stand seedlings in year 2. Without elimination of seed weight effects, orchard seedlings were 7-13% taller. In the field experiment an increase in the seed weight from 3 to 7 mg increased seedling height by 18-65%, stem volume by 81-274% and the number of top-buds by 23-34% in year 5. After elimination of seed weight effects, orchard seedlings were 7-13% taller than stand seedlings and without elimination of seed weight effects 20-21% taller after 5 yrs. Even after elimination of both seed weight and genetic effects orchard seedlings were 3-9% larger than stand seedlings in the field experiment. In conclusion, the influence of seed weight and seed type on growth traits and slenderness is highly significant and the influence seems to be greater in harsh conditions.     

Modelling of adequate pretwist for obtaining straight timber

Abstract

Wood in general and wooden studs in particular are often distorted owing to uneven shrinkage during the drying process in the sawmill. Twist is often the most detrimental of all types of distortion, and it is caused by spiral grain in combination with variations in moisture content. For sawmills, the objective is to produce dried, straight boards, and one method of dealing with boards with excessive spiral grain is to sort them out and then dry them in a pretwisted position to obtain straight boards after drying. A model using the finite element (FE) method for the simulation of drying twist distortions was first calibrated against laboratory experiments in which boards were dried with and without restraints and pretwists. After the calibration, the FE results were compared with industrial test results for boards that were dried without restraints or with restraints with zero pretwist, i.e. straight restraints. The FE model used an elastic–ideally plastic material model to obtain permanent deformations. The calibration was to set the yield stresses so that there was a good match between FE results and results from the laboratory experiments. The comparison between the industrial test results and the FE results showed that the FE model is capable of realistic simulations of drying boards with and without restraints and presumably also pretwists.     

Potential to harness superior nutritional qualities of exotic baobabs if local adaptation can be conferred through grafting

Baobab leaves form an important part of the local diet in Sahel countries and elsewhere in Africa. Existing leaf nutritional data and agroforestry performance information are based solely on Adansonia digitata L., the baobab of continental Africa. The introduction potential of Adansonia species from the center of diversity in Madagascar and from Australia remains untapped. To assess this potential, the mineral contents and B₁ and B₂ vitamin levels of dried baobab leaves were determined for five-year old trees of A. digitata, A. gibbosa (A. Cunn.) Guymer ex D. Baum, A. rubrostipa Jum. & H. Perrier (syn. A. fony Baill.), A. perrieri Capuron and A. za Baill. grown in an introduction trial in Mali. Nutritional data were evaluated against survival and vigor to identify promising germplasm. Leaf vitamin and crude protein contents were highest in the Madagascar species, especially A. rubrostipa (B₁ 88 mg 100 g⁻¹, B₂ 187 mg 100 g⁻¹, protein 20.7% dry weight). However, the local species far outperformed the introductions in survival, tree height, basal diameter and resistance to termites. We suggest grafting as a way of harnessing the vigor of well-adapted local baobab varieties to the superior nutritional profiles of A. rubrostipa and others. Cross-species grafting tests in Adansonia were successful, thus creating new agroforestry possibilities with different scion/rootstock combinations.     

Boron in forest trees and forest ecosystems

This review critically examines the role of boron (B) in forests in view of recent findings on B nutrition and the continuing occurrence of B deficiency. Many perceptions about the role of B in plants and its uptake and mobility have been altered since the last review on B in forest trees in 1990. Now there is evidence for a fundamental role of B in the formation of the pectic structure in primary cell walls in plants, and further roles in membrane function are being explored. In plants, channel-mediated B uptake, active B uptake and B uptake by mycorrhizas have been shown, B transporters have been identified, and B retranslocation has been shown. We explore these findings and their consequences on forest trees and on ecosystems that they dominate. Particular emphasis is placed on B retranslocation and B in mycorrhizal symbiosis, given their importance in trees.     

Survival and Growth of Picea abies Regeneration after Shelterwood Removal with Single- and Double-grip Harvester Systems

Three stands in Sweden were followed for 7 yrs to study the survival and growth of Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] regeneration after shelterwood removal with single- and double-grip harvester systems. The height of all seedlings within circular plots was recorded before and after final cutting. The tallest seedling and one randomly selected seedling on each circular plot were permanently marked and their annual height growth was measured each year during the period 1993-1999. No significant differences between single- and double-grip harvester systems were found with respect to their effects on regeneration density, survival or annual height growth. The annual height growth of the individual seedlings after shelterwood removal was significantly correlated with seedling height before shelterwood removal. Significant differences were found in annual height growth between seedlings with high and low vitality. Logging damage did not affect the annual height growth. Several practical conclusions were drawn. First, the choice of harvester system does not affect seedling height growth or survival after shelterwood removal. Secondly, the removal of a 200 m³ shelterwood with 200 stems ha^-1 does not seem to constitute a serious problem for seedling survival and growth. Finally, estimated vitality and seedling height both seem to be fairly good predictors of postrelease survival and growth.     

Development of Pinus sylvestris Main Stems Following Three Different Precommercial Thinning Methods in a Mixed Stand

Reducing competition by point cleaning may be an attractive alternative to conventional precommercial thinning in forestry. In this study, survival and development of main stems of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) following point cleaning were examined in a mixed stand of mainly Scots pine and birch (Betula pendula Roth and Betula pubescens Ehrh.) in northern Sweden. Treatments studied were: no precommercial thinning, conventional precommercial thinning, point cleaning of all secondary stems, and point cleaning of only the secondary stems that were higher than the main stem, within a radius of 0.8 m from the main stem, respectively. A randomised complete block design with three replicates was used. Measurements taken 13 growing seasons after these treatments showed that conventional precommercial thinning was the best treatment for retaining Scots pines as main stems. However, conventional precommercial thinning resulted in the poorest timber quality of the remaining Scots pines in terms of stem taper, thickest branch diameter and relative live crown height. In conclusion, point cleaning has to be followed by a complementary cleaning operation if the objective is to retain Scots pines as main stems in such mixed stands.