中国华南、华中、东北和西北地区马动脉炎病毒（EAV）感染马血清流行病学调查

马病毒性动脉炎(EVA)是一种由马动脉炎病毒(EAV)引起马属动物主要通过呼吸系统和生殖系统传播的传染病,是危害养马业及赛马业的重要疾病之一.本试验应用纯化EAV全病毒为抗原建立EAV-IgG间接ELISA方法与西班牙INGEZIM-ARTERITIS试剂盒分别检测华南、华中、东北和西北地区共计383份马血清样品.其结果为:华南地区赛马动脉炎阳性率为26%,华中地区赛马动脉炎阳性率为0,东北地区役用马动脉炎阳性率为8.26%,西北地区役用马动脉炎阳性率为7.55%.鉴于此,有必要加强EVA检测,掌握EVA在我国分布,以有效的预防和控制本病传播.     

新疆伊犁地区部分马病血清学调查

为了解新疆伊犁地区马群马流感病毒(equine influenza virus)、马疱疹病毒(equine herpesviruses)以及马沙门菌(Salmonellosis equinum)、马链球菌(Streptococcus equi)的感染情况,采用酶联免疫吸附试验及血凝抑制试验对采自新疆伊犁地区7个马场的277份马血清进行抗体水平检测。结果显示:4种病原中,沙门菌血清抗体阳性率最高26.71%(74/277),马疱疹病毒最低15.16%(42/277);各马场之间马流感病毒、马疱疹病毒,以及沙门菌、马链球菌抗体阳性率差异性极显著(P0.01);不同马场之间马沙门菌和马链球菌双抗体阳性率差异性极显著(P0.01);不同马场之间马鼻肺炎和马流感双抗体阳性率差异性极显著(P0.01)。结果表明:新疆伊犁部分马群存在不同程度的马流感病毒、马疱疹病毒、马沙门菌以及马链球菌的感染。此次调查数据可为新疆地区部分马病的防控工作及马产业的健康发展提供参考。     

马流感病毒双抗体夹心ELISA检测方法的建立

为建立一种快速、有效的检测马流感病毒(Equine influenza virus,EIV)的方法,以EIV中国分离株A/马/新疆/07(H3N8)制备的多克隆抗体为捕获抗体,原核表达的核蛋白(NP)制备的单克隆抗体为检测抗体,在国内首次建立了检测EIV的双抗体夹心ELISA方法.用该检测方法分别检测EIV、马动脉炎病毒、马疱疹病毒1型、马疱疹病毒4型和马乙型脑炎病毒阳性样品.结果表明,该ELISA方法具有良好的特异性;与常规检测EIV的血凝试验相比,其敏感性是后者的2.5～10倍;同时与H7N7亚型EIV有交叉反应.攻毒试验结果表明该方法可有效检测鼻腔分泌物中的EIV.该方法的建立为EIV的检测及早期防控提供了有效工具.     

规模化驴场中马流感病毒H3N8亚型感染情况调查

[目的]调查山东省聊城市规模化驴场中马流感病毒的感染情况,并分析其可能的来源。[方法]从聊城的规模化驴场采集病料和血清,通过HI试验检测驴血清中的马流感病毒H3N8亚型抗体的阳性率。使用RT-PCR技术扩增肺脏和鼻腔棉拭子样品中的马流感病毒M基因,对获得的马流感病毒M基因与不同流感病毒的M基因进行序列比对,推测其来源。[结果]HI试验表明,120个血清样品中马流感病毒H3N8亚型血清抗体阳性率为33.3%(40/120);其中,母驴的马流感病毒H3N8亚型血清抗体阳性率为42.5%(17/40)、公驴为32.5%(13/40)、驴驹为25.0%(10/40)。通过RT-PCR检测发现,32.3%(21/65)的样品可测出目的条带。通过序列比对得出,该试验获得的流感病毒M基因与马属动物的H3N8亚型流感病毒高度同源(CY032222、CY032318、CY028821等),同源性最高可达99.8%。[结论]马流感病毒在聊城周边的数个规模化养驴场发生流行。该研究从驴体内分离的流感病毒M基因属于马流感病毒H3N8亚型M基因。     

新疆部分地区马疱疹病毒1型感染的血清学调查

旨在了解新疆地区马疱疹病毒1型感染的流行现状和特点,本研究于2019—2020年从新疆乌鲁木齐、昌吉州、伊犁州、巴州16处规模化马场收集1 657份马血清样品,采用酶联免疫吸附试验（ELISA）进行抗体检测,对不同地区、品种、性别及年龄马匹的马疱疹病毒1型抗体阳性率进行统计分析。结果显示,乌鲁木齐、伊犁州、昌吉州、巴州马疱疹病毒1型抗体阳性率分别为39.34%、22.56%、90.52%、5.00%;纯血马、混血马、哈萨克马、伊犁马、焉耆马、普氏野马的EHV-1抗体阳性率分别为20.34%、32.93%、44.92%、19.35%、5.00%、90.52%;普氏野马与家马的EHV-1抗体阳性率分别为90.52%和29.32%;家马中新疆本土品种马与引进品种马的EHV-1抗体阳性率分别为31.70%和25.50%;母马与公马的EHV-1抗体阳性率分别为38.84%和22.00%;处于幼年、青年、成年、老年阶段的马匹EHV-1抗体阳性率分别为35.37%、33.00%、34.31%、23.81%。结果提示,新疆乌鲁木齐、伊犁州、昌吉州、巴州规模化养殖场普遍存在EHV-1感染,且不同地区、品种、性别及年龄的马EHV-1感染率差异显著（P<0.05）。本研究为新疆地区EHV-1感染的探讨和防控工作提供调查数据。     

马鼻肺炎的流行及综合诊治

马鼻肺炎（ER）是由马疱疹病毒引起的马属动物传染病。由2个亲缘密切疱疹病毒，即马疱疹病毒l型（EHV-1）和马疱疹病毒4型（EHV-4）引起。EHV-1又称马流产病毒，EHV-4又称呼吸道感染病毒。 1 病原马病毒性流产的病原为马疱疹病毒1型（EHV-1），马呼吸道感染病毒（又称马鼻肺炎病毒）为马疱疹病毒4型（EHV-4），属疱疹病毒科甲疱疹病毒亚科的成员。     

马疱疹病毒1型gG蛋白间接ELISA检测方法的建立及应用

为了解新疆马疱疹病毒1型(EHV-1)的流行情况,需要建立一种检测抗体的间接ELISA方法。采用纯化后EHV-1 XJ2015株的gG蛋白作为检测抗原,优化反应条件后建立检测EHV-1血清抗体的间接ELISA方法,并对该方法进行特异性、敏感性和重复性试验及商品化试剂盒的应用效果对比。结果表明,该方法仅与EHV-1阳性血清发生反应,不与马疱疹病毒4型、马流感病毒和马动脉炎病毒阳性血清发生反应,血清稀释1∶1 600后,仍可以检测到阳性,组内及组间变异系数均小于5%。与试剂盒进行检测结果比较,符合率为93.35%。建立了EHV-1 gG蛋白间接ELISA检测方法,可为EHV-1的快速诊断、流行病学调查及防控工作提供技术支撑。     

2022年宁夏固原市肉用流产母牛病原血清学调查分析

[目的]为了明确宁夏固原地区肉用流产母牛4种流产相关病原的流行情况。[方法]试验选择宁夏固原市5个地区不同规模化肉牛养殖场,采集131份有流产史的母牛血清样品,采用酶联免疫吸附试验（ELISA）分别对流产相关病原抗体/抗原进行检测和分析。[结果]采集的131份血清样品中共检出109份阳性血清,阳性率为83.2%。其中BVDV抗体阳性率为62.6%（82/131）、流产衣原体抗体阳性率为59.5%（78/131）、IBRV抗体阳性率为13.7%（18/131）,布鲁氏菌抗体阳性率为0%（0/131）。结果表明,采集的131份血清样品中共检出109份阳性血清,阳性率为83.2%。其中BVDV抗体阳性率为62.6%（82/131）、流产衣原体抗体阳性率为59.5%（78/131）、IBRV抗体阳性率为13.7%（18/131）,布鲁氏菌抗体阳性率为0%（0/131）。109份阳性样品中,最多出现3种病原混合感染。其中单一病原感染阳性样品占42.2%（46/109）,以BVDV感染比例最大,与流产衣原体阳性率相比差异显著（P＜0.05）;2种病原混合感染样品占56.9%（62/109）,以BVDV和流产衣原体混合感染比例最大,与流产衣原体和IBRV混合感染阳性率、BVDV和IBRV混合感染阳性率差异极显著（P＜0.01）;3种病原混合感染样本占4.6％（4/109）,主要以BVDV、流产衣原体和IBRV混合感染为主。[结论]宁夏固原地区流产母牛均存在以上3种疫病感染,其中主要以BVDV和流产衣原体单独或混合感染为主。     

马病毒性动脉炎血凝及血凝抑制试验研究与应用

在RK-13细胞上培的马动脉炎病毒在4℃、室温和37℃条件下，用各种动物的红细胞进行血凝试验，证实病毒在不同温度下均可凝集小鼠和鸡的红细胞，但不能凝集牛、绵羊、山羊、马、猪、豚鼠、仓鼠、兔及鹅红细胞，病毒用吐温-80和乙醚处理后，血凝活力会显著增强，其血凝滴度比未经处理的病毒高4-8倍，且血凝像更加清晰，最适处理条件是病毒在冰、浴状态下用终浓度0.06%-0.125%(V/V)二温-80振荡处理15min-60min，再加50%（V/V）乙醚振荡作用5min-15min。用EAV免疫SPF豚鼠，4周后采血做HI和NT试验，显示HI抗体和NT抗体产物成正相关，对550份来自新西兰、吉尔吉斯、内蒙古、新疆的马血清做EAV的抗体检测，比较两个试验，二者符合率为97.8%，血凝抑制抗体与中和抗体效价呈显著的正相关，但抗体效价略低于后者。     

黑龙江省一株马流感病毒的全基因组测序及同源性分析

通过采集一匹患病马的病料及后续的病毒分离、病毒核酸提取、RT-PCR、连接T载体等一系列分子生物学技术,对病毒核酸进行测序,经NCBI比对分析,获得一株H3N8亚型马流感病毒。将获得的毒株与我国分离的A/equine/Jilin/1/1989禽源性毒株、2002年美国肯塔基分离株A/equine/Kentucky/1/02（美洲谱系Florida亚型）、A/equine/Argentine/77（美洲谱系Argentine亚型）等有代表性毒株进行同源性分析,发现该毒株与Florida-2型马流感病毒基因片段的同源率最高。根据马流感病毒的命名规则,将这毒株命名为A/equine/Heilongjiang/1/2010。本次所分离到的黑龙江株马流感病毒,丰富了我国马流感病毒资源库,为我国马流感流行病学研究、诊断技术及疫苗研究提供了重要基础。     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Prevalence of gastric lesions in racing Alaskan sled dogs

Human and equine athletes are reported to have a high prevalence of gastric disease, and anecdotal evidence suggests a similar phenomenon applies to racing sled dogs. To investigate the prevalence of gastric disease in racing sled dogs, we conducted 2 gastroscopy studies on dogs competing in the annual Iditarod Sled Dog Race. A pilot study of dogs that were either dropped from the 2000 Iditarod Sled Dog Race because of illness or that finished the race indicated that, approximately 5 days after competing, 10 of 28 dogs (35%) had endoscopic evidence of gastric ulceration, erosion, or hemorrhage. The next year, an endoscopic study of 73 dogs participating in the 2001 Iditarod race was performed in order to evaluate a larger population of dogs. Data from 70 of these dogs could be used; 34 (48.5%) had ulceration, erosion, gastric hemorrhage, or some combination of these findings. When this group of 70 dogs was compared retrospectively to a control group of 87 dogs presented to the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, the Iditarod sled dogs had a significantly higher prevalence (P = .049) of gastric lesions. These findings suggest that, similar to athletes of other species, elite canine athletes have an increased prevalence of gastric disease compared to the canine population at large.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

Feline intracranial neoplasia: retrospective review of 160 cases (1985-2001)

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.     

A brief history of the prevention of infectious diseases by immunisations

Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.