The Exploitation of Crop Allelopathy in Sustainable Agricultural Production

Crop allelopathy may be useful to minimize serious problems in the present agricultural production such as environmental pollution, unsafe products, human health concerns, depletion of crop diversity, soil sickness and reduction of crop productivity. Several crops including alfalfa, buckwheat, maize, rice, rye, sorghum, sunflower, wheat, etc. are affected either by their own toxicity or phytotoxin exudates when their residues decompose in the soil, that show strong suppression on weed emergences. Allelopathic crops when used as cover crop, mulch, smother crops, green manures, or grown in rotational sequences are helpful in reducing noxious weeds and plant pathogen, improve soil quality and crop yield. Those crop plants, particularly the legumes, incorporated at 1–2 tons ha⁻¹ (alfalfa, buckwheat, rice by-products), which can give weed reduction and increase of rice yield by 70 and 20 %, respectively, are suggested for use as natural herbicides. Allelochemicals from allelopathic crops may aid in the development of biological herbicides and pesticides. Cultivating a system with allelopathic crops plays an important role in the establishment of sustainable agriculture. The introduction of allelopathic traits from accessions with strong allelopathic potential to the target crops will enhance the efficacy of crop allelopathy in future agricultural production.     

Herbicide-tolerant crops in agriculture: oilseed rape as a case study

Oilseed rape has been modified extensively by conventional breeding for the production of varieties useful for human consumption (blended vegetable oil and margarine) and industrial processes (rubber additives and high‐temperature lubricants). Because much is now known about its genetic and biochemical composition, it has been an obvious choice for genetic modification and is now at the forefront of the commercial development of genetically modified (GM) or transgenic crops. Around the world, the increase in commercial plantings of all transgenic crops has been rapid. In 1996, 1.7 million hectares were planted, but by 1998 this figure had jumped to 27.8 million ha. The area in the year 2001 is likely to be about 50 million ha. With the possible introduction of transgenic varieties into European agriculture, it is essential that the associated farming practices employed are appropriate for their growth, both from a commercial and an environmental viewpoint. Some of the first transgenic crops are those carrying agronomic traits, e.g. herbicide tolerance transgenes. However, before full commercialization occurs, important agronomic and environmental questions need to be answered. How are these new crops to be incorporated into existing cropping practices? How will this change the current herbicide use profile for a given crop? Do herbicide‐tolerant varieties enhance or impede integrated pest management schemes? What is the likely uptake of such crops in agriculture? What are the ecological implications of their introduction? Are there effective measures to control the spread of transgenes to wild relatives? This paper addresses these questions, with special emphasis on oilseed rape production in the UK, but includes examples from other crops and countries where appropriate.     

Suppressing Weeds in Direct-seeded Lowland Rice: Effects of Methods and Rates of Seeding

High weed infestation is a major constraint to widespread adoption of direct seeding of rice (Oryza sativa L.) The experiments were conducted in 1998 wet and 1999 dry seasons in the Philippines to examine the effects of seeding methods and rates on suppressing weeds in direct-seeded lowland rice. Treatments consisted of four seeding methods: conventional and modified broadcast seeding, drill seeding with east–west and north–south row orientations; three seeding rates: 40, 80 and 160 kg seed ha⁻¹ as well as two weed control levels: weed control with herbicide and no weed control. Among the seeding methods drill seeding with east–west row orientation had the lowest rice grain yield loss caused by weeds (38 % in the wet and 20 % in the dry season), whereas the highest losses because of weeds were observed with conventional broadcast seeding (59 % in the wet and 27 % in the dry season). Seeding rate was inversely correlated to weed interference. Severe rice yield reduction (71 %) caused by weeds was found at a seeding rate of 40 kg seed ha⁻¹ in the wet season. Using seeding rates of 80 and 160 kg seed ha⁻¹, respectively, lowered yield loss to 47 and 26 % in the wet season, 32 and 18 % in the dry season. Therefore suitable method and/or rate of seeding can significantly suppress weeds in direct-seeded lowland rice.     

Characterization of host tolerance to Striga hermonthica

Summary One of the most promising control options against the parasitic weed Striga hermonthica is the use of crop varieties that combine resistance with high levels of tolerance. The aim of this study was to clarify the relation between Striga infestation level, Striga infection level and relative yield loss of sorghum and to use this insight for exploring the options for a proper screening procedure for tolerance. In three pot experiments, conducted in Mali (2003) and The Netherlands (2003, 2004), four sorghum genotypes were exposed to a range of Striga infestation levels, ranging from 0.0625 to 16 seeds cm⁻³. Observations included regular Striga emergence counts and sorghum grain yield at maturity. There were significant genotype, infestation and genotype × infestation effects on sorghum yield. The relation between infestation level and infection level was density dependent. Furthermore, the relation between Striga infection level and relative yield loss was non-linear, though for the most resistant genotype Framida only the linear part of the relation was obtained, as even at high infestation levels only moderate infection levels were achieved. The results suggest that for resistant genotypes, tolerance can best be quantified as a reduced relative yield loss per aboveground Striga plant, whereas for less resistant genotypes the maximum relative yield loss can best be used. Whether both expressions of tolerance are interrelated could not be resolved. Complications of screening for tolerance under field conditions are discussed.     

应用计算机图像处理技术识别玉米苗期田间杂草的研究

利用计算机图像处理技术分析了玉米苗期田间杂草的特征量，识别出田间杂草并确定了杂草的位置和生长状况。研究中采用双峰法滤除了土壤背景，根据投影面积、叶长、叶宽识别出了杂草，并且根据杂草投影面积确定出了杂草密度。实验结果表明，此方法可有效地识别出玉米苗期田间细长的单子叶杂草。     

施肥模式对晚稻田杂草群落的影响

【目的】长期不合理施化肥对生态环境的影响已经引起学者和公众的关注,有机肥的施用越来越受到重视。揭示有机肥对农田杂草群落影响的机制、预测有机农业环境下杂草群落的演替趋势十分困难。本文对比研究不同施肥模式下农田杂草的群落特征,探索晚稻田杂草群落结构演变趋势,以期为现代农业中有机肥的合理施用和农田生物多样性保护提供科学依据。【方法】通过田间长期定位施肥试验,运用群落生态学方法研究了晚稻种植季五种施肥处理区杂草群落的结构特征及其生物多样性。在每个小区随机设置5个面积为0.25 m2的样方,记录各样方内杂草物种种类、每个种类杂草的数量,调查杂草的盖度与频度;测定稻谷理论产量;使用照度计测量地表与水稻冠层顶部的光照强度,计算光照透过率;测定耕作层土壤的有机质、碱解氮、有效磷、速效钾含量。计算杂草的重要值,采用物种丰富度(S)和Shannon-Wiener指数(H)测定杂草群落的生物多样性;以15个处理小区中的11种常见杂草的重要值构成原始数据矩阵,应用SPSS16.0软件进行主成分分析和典范对应分析。【结果】晚稻田不同施肥处理土壤养分以及光照透过率差异显著,施有机肥的处理晚稻稻谷产量高于CK与NPK纯化肥处理。CK处理区优势种为野荸荠-节节菜-异型莎草-鸭舌草,NPK处理区优势种为双穗雀稗,NPK5/5和NPK3/7处理区优势种为双穗雀稗-鸭舌草,NPK7/3处理区优势种为双穗雀稗-鸭舌草-稗。主成分分析结果表明15个施肥处理小区的杂草群落可以分为三大类:第一类是CK处理;第二类是NPK3/7处理;第三类是NPK、NPK5/5、NPK7/3三个处理。主成分Factor 1与有机质、碱解氮以及有效磷呈极显著负相关(P0.01),与光照透过率呈极显著正相关(P0.01)。典范对应分析结果显示,节节菜、野荸荠与牛毛毡比较适宜生长在CK处理区,双穗雀稗适宜在NPK7/3处理区生长,鸭舌草、陌上菜以及四叶萍适宜生长在NPK3/7处理区。有机肥处理区的物种丰富度与物种多样性指数处于NPK与CK之间,且随着有机肥比例的增加物种数增加。物种丰富度以及物种多样性指数与有机质、碱解氮以及有效磷呈极显著正的"U型"相关(P0.01),与速效钾呈显著负相关(P0.05),与群落光照条件呈极显著正相关(P0.01)。【结论】晚稻田杂草群落特征与土壤有机质、碱解氮、有效磷含量以及地表光照透过率关系密切。均衡施用有机和无机肥可以显著降低杂草群落的优势种数量,将杂草群落的优势种数量以及生物多样性维持在不施肥与纯施化肥处理区之间。因此,可以通过调整有机肥的施用量来调控农田杂草生长及群落特性,实现农田杂草的科学综合管理。综合考虑晚稻稻谷产量和杂草群落生物多样性状况,NPK3/7(化肥30%+有机肥70%)施肥模式既可以保证作物的优质高产,也可以较好地维持杂草群落的生物多样性。     

土壤杂草种子库与杂草综合管理

土壤杂草种子库是农田杂草发生危害的主要根源,种子库的动态变化规律对于杂草的综合管理具有非常重要的意义。目前研究表明,杂草种子库的密度和组成变化很大,与田间杂草群落具有密切的联系。杂草种子库时刻处于输入和输出的动态变化之中。耕作方式影响杂草种子在土壤中的垂直分布,从而间接影响种子库的密度和种类组成;作物轮作使杂草的生存环境趋于多样化,能够限制某些对单一种植系统有着良好适应性的杂草种类的生长,作物轮作对杂草种子库种类组成和丰富度的影响要大于耕作方式;杂草管理措施能够大大降低田间杂草的结实,从而减小杂草种子库的规模。随着人们对除草剂使用和环境安全问题的日益关注,发展基于生态规律的杂草管理措施越来越受到人们重视,结合近几年国内外的研究进展,作者提出了杂草种子库今后的一些新的研究发展方向。     

玉米苗期杂草的计算机识别技术研究

利用计算机视觉技术和人工神经网络技术对识别玉米苗期田间杂草进行了研究。首先利用类间方差最大自动阈值法二值化杂草图像的超绿特征，再进行连续腐蚀与膨胀，然后根据长宽比、圆度、第一不变矩3个形状特征由BP网络识别出玉米幼苗，最后利用种子填充法从阈值分割结果中擦除玉米目标，剩余的就是杂草目标。研究表明，基于BP网络的杂草识别算法对玉米幼苗与杂草的正确识别率分别为87.5%和93.0%，处理一幅640×480像素的杂草图像平均耗时约为58 ms。     

基于多特征的田间杂草识别方法

该文阐述了通过利用植物的多种特征实现田间杂草的精准自动识别的方法。该方法先利用颜色特征分割土壤背景,然后利用位置和纹理特征识别行间和行内杂草,最后利用形态特征后处理误识别的作物和杂草。在实验室内利用实地采集的3～5叶期、不同作物行数的麦田图像对该方法进行了测试。作物和杂草的正确识别率最低为89%,最高为98%;处理时间最低为157 ms,最高为252 ms。试验结果表明：基于多特征的田间杂草识别方法具有较高的识别率和较快的识别速度。     

The major features of an infestation by the invasive weed legume gorse (Ulex europaeus) on volcanic soils in Hawaii

Gorse (Ulex europaeus) infestation occupies over 4,000 ha of agriculture and conservation lands on the southeastern slope of Mauna Kea on the Island of Hawaii. The aim of this investigation is to identify ecological features associated with this weed invasion by comparing the gorse-infested areas to the surrounding uninfested areas of this landscape. The soils within the gorse infestation are more acidic, resulting in higher levels of KCl-extractable Al and lower levels of Mehlich III-extractable Ca, Mg, Mn, and Zn. Yet, gorse accumulates higher concentrations of Ca, Zn and, Cu than the kikuyu grass (Pennesitum clandestinum), which is ubiquitous throughout the site. The Ca:Al and Mg:Al molar charge ratios of the soils are lowest within the epicenter of the gorse infestation, while the molar ratios are highest in the gorse apical stem tissues. All gorse plants are nodulated and have higher nitrogen contents than the surrounding kikuyu grass. Furthermore, the δ¹⁵N of the gorse stem tissues approaches 0‰, suggesting that nitrogen is being symbiotically fixed from the atmosphere. Characterization of the Bradyrhizobium isolated from gorse nodules shows similarities and distinctions to Bradyrhizobium isolated from the endemic legume koa (Acacia koa) within the same location. Population densities of the indigenous Bradyrhizobium are higher within the gorse rhizosphere than the kikuyu grass. Soil acidification, nutrient depletion, and symbiotic nitrogen fixation distinguish gorse-infested areas from the surrounding uninfested areas. These observations suggest that gorse has a competitive advantage over kikuyu grass under conditions of soil nutrient deficiency.