Mulching mode and planting density affect canopy interception loss of rainfall and water use efficiency of dryland maize on the Loess Plateau of China

High and efficient use of limited rainwater resources is of crucial importance for the crop production in arid and semi-arid areas. To investigate the effects of different soil and crop management practices(i.e., mulching mode treatments: flat cultivation with non-mulching, flat cultivation with straw mulching, plastic-covered ridge with bare furrow and plastic-covered ridge with straw-covered furrow; and planting density treatments: low planting density of 45,000 plants/hm~2, medium planting density of 67,500 plants/hm~2 and high planting density of 90,000 plants/hm~2) on rainfall partitioning by dryland maize canopy, especially the resulted net rainfall input beneath the maize canopy, we measured the gross rainfall, throughfall and stemflow at different growth stages of dryland maize in 2015 and 2016 on the Loess Plateau of China. The canopy interception loss was estimated by the water balance method. Soil water storage, leaf area index, grain yield(as well as it components) and water use efficiency of dryland maize were measured or calculated. Results showed that the cumulative throughfall, cumulative stemflow and cumulative canopy interception loss during the whole growing season accounted for 42.3%–77.5%, 15.1%–36.3% and 7.4%–21.4% of the total gross rainfall under different treatments, respectively. Soil mulching could promote the growth and development of dryland maize and enhance the capability of stemflow production and canopy interception loss, thereby increasing the relative stemflow and relative canopy interception loss and reducing the relative throughfall. The relative stemflow and relative canopy interception loss generally increased with increasing planting density, while the relative throughfall decreased with increasing planting density. During the two experimental years, mulching mode had no significant influence on net rainfall due to the compensation between throughfall and stemflow, whereas planting density significantly affected net rainfall. The highest grain yield and water use efficiency of dryland maize were obtained under the combination of medium planting density of 67,500 plants/hm~2 and mulching mode of plastic-covered ridge with straw-covered furrow. Soil mulching can reduce soil evaporation and retain more soil water for dryland maize without reducing the net rainfall input beneath the maize canopy, which may alleviate the contradiction between high soil water consumption and insufficient rainfall input of the soil. In conclusion, the application of medium planting density(67,500 plants/hm~2) under plastic-covered ridge with bare furrow is recommended for increasing dryland maize production on the Loess Plateau of China.     

Changes in rainfall partitioning caused by the replacement of native dry forests of Lithraea molleoides by exotic plantations of Pinus elliottii in the dry Chaco mountain forests,central Argentina

The replacement of native dry forests by commercial (exotic) tree plantations could generate changes in rainfall partitioning, which further affects the water cycle. In this study, we determined (i) the rainfall partitioning into interception, throughfall and stemflow, (ii) the role of rainfall event size on rainfall partitioning, (iii) the pH of water channelized as throughfall and stemflow, and (iv) the runoff in Lithraea molleoides (a native species) and Pinus elliottii (an exotic species) stands in the dry Chaco mountain forests, central Argentina. On average, interception, throughfall and stemflow accounted for 19.3%, 79.5% and 1.2% of the gross rainfall in L. molleoides stand, and 32.6%, 66.7% and 0.7% of the gross rainfall in P. elliottii stand, respectively. Amounts of interception, throughfall and stemflow presented positive linear relationships with the increment of rainfall event size for both tree species (P<0.01 in all cases). Percentages of interception, throughfall and stemflow were all related to the increment of rainfall event size, showing different patterns. With increasing rainfall event size, interception exponentially decreased, throughfall asymptotically increased and stemflow linearly increased. Both P. elliottii and L. molleoides stands presented significant differences in the pH values of water channelized as throughfall (6.3 vs. 6.7, respectively; P<0.01) and stemflow (4.5 vs. 5.8, respectively; P<0.01). Runoff occupied only 0.3% of the gross rainfall in P. elliottii stand and was zero in L. molleoides stand. Our results showed that the native species L. molleoides presented 13.6% more water reaching the topsoil (i.e., net rainfall; net rainfall=gross rainfall-interception-runoff) than the exotic species P. elliottii. This study improves our understanding of the effects of native vegetation replacement on the local water balance in the dry forest ecosystems.     

大青山区油松人工林降雨分配特征研究

以大青山区30 a生油松人工林为研究对象,系统观测了林分对降雨的再分配作用,根据2006年的观测结果显示,油松人工林林冠穿透雨量、林冠截留、树干茎流所占降雨的比例分别为65.83%、33.04%、1.13%,枯枝落叶层有效拦蓄量为0.62mm,截留率为8.9%,地表径流率为2.6%;林冠穿透雨量、树干茎流量与林外降雨量均呈显著的线性正相关,而林冠截留量与降雨量呈幂函数关系。     

古尔班通古特沙漠梭梭和白梭梭树干茎流特征

通过对古尔班通古特沙漠2个主要建群种梭梭(Haloxylon ammodendron)和白梭梭(Haloxylon persicum)树干茎流的野外实验观测,分析植株冠层和降雨特征对树干茎流形成的影响,并明确了树干茎流量在降雨再分配中的比例。结果表明：当降雨量≥2.4 mm时,梭梭和白梭梭开始有树干茎流产生。梭梭、白梭梭的树干茎流量随树冠体积的增大而增加,但是,当梭梭树冠体积大于4 m³,白梭梭树冠体积大于1.5 m³时,树干茎流量随树冠体积的增加不再增大,甚至有下降趋势。梭梭和白梭梭的树干茎流量和降雨量之间存在显著正相关,累计树干茎流量分别占降雨总量的9.1%和6.4%。梭梭和白梭梭的集流率均随降雨量增加而增大,能够有效地将树干茎流汇聚到树干基部, 梭梭表现出更强的汇集树干茎流的潜力。     

荒漠草原中间锦鸡儿(Caragana intermedia)冠层穿透雨的发生与分布特征

为进一步认识荒漠草原带状人工中间锦鸡儿林（Caragana intermedia）植被稳定性维持的生态水文过程机制，通过对行生和散生中间锦鸡儿冠层穿透雨的对比研究，结果表明：① 两者对降水变化响应显著，但是差异不显著。散生和行生中间锦鸡儿穿透雨百分比变化范围分别为25.6%~96.5%（Cv = 23%）和25.4%~96.1%（Cv = 19%），穿透雨量均值分别为7.55 mm和7.40 mm。穿透雨量与降雨量、降雨历时、降雨强度都具有极显著的线性回归关系，但是穿透雨百分比与降水特征参数以幂函数关系为主。② 冠层下穿透雨分布存在明显的空间异质性。穿透雨百分比普遍随距灌丛基部距离的增大而线性增大。 “旱区”集中出现在散生中间锦鸡儿灌木的基部，向外百分比逐步提高；行生中间锦鸡儿则出现了多个旱区和雨极镶嵌分布的情况。     

Characteristics of Caragana korshinskii and Hippophae rhamnoides stemflow and their significance in soil moisture enhancement in Loess Plateau, China

Stemflow of xerophytic shrubs represents a significant component of water replenishment to the soil-root system and influences water utilization of plant roots at the stand scale,especially in water-scarce semi-arid ecosystems.The stemflow of two semi-arid shrubs(Caragana korshinskii and Hippophae rhamnoides)and its effect on soil moisture enhancement were evaluated during the growing season of 2011 in the semi-arid loess region of China.The results indicated that stemflow averaged 12.3%and 8.4%of the bulk precipitation for C.korshinskii and H.rhamnoides,respectively.Individual stemflow increased in a linear function with increasing rainfall depth.The relationship between funneling ratios and rainfall suggested that there existed a rainfall depth threshold of 11 mm for both C.korshinskii and H.rhamnoides.Averaged funneling ratios were 156.6±57.1 and49.5±30.8 for C.korshinskii and H.rhamnoides,respectively,indicating that the canopy architecture of the two shrubs was an effective funnel to channel stemflow to the root area,and C.korshinskii showed a greater potential to use stemflow water in the semi-arid conditions.For individual rainfall events,the wetting front depths were approximately 2 times deeper in the rooting zone around the stems than in the bare area outside canopy for both C.korshinskii and H.rhamnoides.Correspondingly,soil water content was also significantly higher in the root area around the shrub stem than in the area outside the shrub canopy.This confirms that shrub stemflow conserved in the deep soil layers may be an available moisture source for plant growth under semi-arid conditions.     

祁连山区沙棘人工林生态经济效益分析

通过对沙棘人工造林效果的调查,分析总结出了沙棘人工林的生长规律;沙棘地上生物量随年龄增长之间有Y=0. 0002X5 -0. 0658X4 +0. 686X3 -2. 5659X2 +2. 2501X+3.3027(R=0. 96)的规律;沙棘产果量与地上生物量之间有Y=-0. 0819+0. 2299X-0. 0018X2(R=0. 99)的规律;沙棘结实和经济系数有随着树龄的增大而增大,石砾河滩至生长10年以后开始逐渐下降的规律;进一步分析了沙棘人工林对改善土壤物理性质的作用和生态水文功能。结果表明:沙棘林可降低土壤容重,增加土壤含水量; 10年生沙棘林枯落物厚度平均在1~3cm,枯落物重22t/hm2,水容量为绝干重的2. 12 ~4. 25倍;蓄水量达13. 65 ~23. 37t/hm2;林冠郁闭度在0. 7~0. 8时,林冠对降雨的截留量为39. 3%;林地0 ~20cm土壤的初渗率为16. 165#/min是对照区的8. 7倍;稳渗率为2. 4#/min是对照区的2. 53倍。     

作物冠层对喷灌水分分布影响的研究进展

喷灌水分到达冠层以后,经过冠层的截留和水分再分配过程,主要以两种方式到达地面,即穿过冠层直接落入土壤和通过叶片的集水,然后以茎秆为通道流入土壤.以不同方式进入土壤中的水量与作物的种类、冠层结构、种植密度,以及喷灌系统和喷灌时的农田小气候等因素有关.本文根据喷灌水分在农田的分布特点,把喷灌系统和作物结合起来,提出了喷灌有效灌水均匀系数的概念.该系数能综合反映灌溉水经过冠层再分配过程以后,田间水分的有效性.     

1961-2013年新疆雪雨比变化

基于中国国家气象信息中心发布的1961-2013年全国0.5°×0.5°逐日降水量和逐日平均气温数据集以及气象站点日降水量和气温实测资料,评估了该套格点降水资料在新疆地区的可信度,并利用格点降水资料研究了新疆地区降雪量、降雨量以及雪雨比的时空变化和突变信息.结果表明:内插到气象站点的格点降水数据和气象站点实测降水数据之间的偏差普遍较小,偏差在0.2 ～1.0 mm的站点个数占总站点数的72.55％,在绝大多数区域二者之间的相关系数均在0.80以上;1961-2013年,新疆降雪量呈微弱的增加趋势,增加幅度为0.11 mm·a-1,但没有通过0.05的显著性水平检验.降雨量以0.63 mm·a-1的速率呈明显的增加趋势(P ＜0.000 1),突变出现在1992年左右.雪雨比呈下降趋势,幅度为0.01 a-1 (P ＜0.05),突变出现在1991年左右;降雪量、降雨量及雪雨比表现出一定的空间分布差异,降雪量和降雨量在全区普遍呈增加趋势,而雪雨比在天山山地以北呈增加趋势,在天山山地以及天山山地以南主要呈减少趋势.在新疆冰川分布区域,降雪量倾向率在新疆北部呈增加趋势,而在新疆东南部呈减少趋势;降雨量倾向率呈增加趋势,且新疆东南部降雨量倾向率大于北部;雪雨比倾向率呈现出与降雪量倾向率相似的变化趋势.     

乌鲁木齐市近40多年降水演变特征

通过分析1960-2004年乌鲁木齐市各年代际的年平均降水、各季降水、大降水(中量以上)日数以及5～9月短时强降水的演变特点和变化趋势.结果表明:乌鲁木齐市平均年降水量20世纪60年代最少,70年代开始递增,80年代以后增幅明显且呈偏多趋势,90年代平均降水量各年份差异较大,气候异常加重;冬季增减幅度最大, 80年代以后平均冬季增幅最大;近几年大雨(雪)日及暴雨日呈迅速增多趋势;各年代5～9月短时强降水变化,60年代天气最少,以后逐渐增多,80-90年代迅速增多,近几年来短时强降水呈频发趋势.揭示和认识气候变化趋势,对提高预防城市内涝、局地洪水能力和应急建设具有一定的指导意义.     

天山云杉雪盖面积估算树冠截留雪水当量实验分析

雪水当量是一个能直观反映出积雪水资源量的重要指标,准确而全面地获取天山云杉树冠截留雪水当量信息,对于提高天山水资源量计算精度方面具有重要意义。本文以天山云杉树苗为研究对象,通过模拟降雪,进行降雪截留实验研究。利用数码照相机获取云杉的雪盖面积、高精度天平称量树冠上截留的雪水质量,进而建立起云杉树苗雪盖面积和雪水当量之间的关系。实验结果表明:多株云杉树苗多次模拟降雪,树冠截留的雪水当量和垂直朝下数字摄影获得的雪盖面积之间拟合曲线趋于一致,且拟合回归方程满足y=21.235χ^2-1.457χ(R^2=0.992 5);通过云杉多次模拟降雪实验,构建云杉雪盖面积与树冠截留的雪水当量模型,提出一套利用雪盖面积较为准确估算树冠截留雪水当量的科学方法,为天山云杉树冠截留降雪及其雪水当量提供高精度估算模型。     

河西走廊东部人工降水试验效果评估

采用非随机试验，运用序列试验法、区域对比试验法、区域回归试验法，分析了在河西走廊东部凉州区1997～2004年夏秋季进行的高炮、火箭人工增雨作业和2002～2004年冬春季进行的焰弹人工增雪作业。试验发现，1997～2004年夏秋季累计增加降雨量134mm，平均相对增雨率为47％；2002～2004年冬春季累计增加降雪量12．5mm，平均相对增雪率为40％。说明河西走廊东部进行的人工增雨（雪）效果是明显的，进行人工增雨（雪）是可行的，并对武威市人工增雨（雪）季节、布点和时机等提出了思考。     

Effects of the growing-maize canopy and irrigation characteristics on the ability to funnel sprinkler water

Stemflow is vital for supplying water, fertilizer, and other crop essentials during sprinkler irrigation. Exploring the spatial and temporal variations of crop stemflow and its influencing factors will be essential to preventing soil water and nutrient ion's migration to deeper layers, developing, and optimizing effective sprinkler irrigation schedules. Based on the two-year experimental data, we analyzed the variation patterns (stemflow amount, depth, rate, and funneling ratio) of maize stemflow during the growing season, and clarified its vertical distribution pattern. Meanwhile, effects of sprinkler irrigation and maize morphological parameters on stemflow were investigated. The results showed that stemflow increased gradually as maize plant grew. Specifically, stemflow was small at the pre-jointing stage and reached the maximum at the late filling stage. The upper canopy generated more stemflow than the lower canopy until the flare opening stage. After the tasseling stage, the middle canopy generated more stemflow than the other positions. Variation in canopy closure at different positions was the main factor contributing to the above difference. As sprinkler intensity increased, stemflow also increased. However, the effect of droplet size on stemflow was inconsistent. Specifically, when sprinkler intensity was less than or equal to 10 mm/h, stemflow was generated with increasing droplet size. In contrast, if sprinkler intensity was greater than or equal to 20 mm/h, stemflow tended to decreased with increasing droplet size. Compared with other morphological parameters, canopy closure significantly affected the generation of stemflow. Funneling ratio was not significantly affected by plant morphology. Based on the results of different sprinkler intensities, we developed stemflow depth versus canopy closure and stemflow rate versus canopy closure power function regression models with a high predictive accuracy. The research findings will contribute to the understanding of the processes of stemflow involving the hydro-geochemical cycle of agro-ecosystems and the implementation of cropland management practices.     

模拟降雨条件下谷子和冬小麦植株对降雨再分配过程的影响

以谷子（ Setaria italica）、冬小麦（ Triticum aestivum Linn 。）为研究对象,利用人工模拟降雨测定了不同降雨强度和生长阶段两种作物植株的穿透雨,采用人工喷雾法测定了不同生长阶段的冠层截留,根据水量平衡法计算了不同观测阶段的茎秆流。结果表明：谷子、冬小麦冠层对降雨的再分配作用显著,谷子冠下穿透雨率平均约为79％,茎秆流率平均约为20％,冠层截留率平均约占1％;冬小麦冠下穿透雨率平均约为79％,茎秆流率平均约为19％,冠层截留率平均约占2％。在其全生育期内,两种作物冠下穿透雨与茎秆流呈彼此消长趋势。穿透雨量和茎秆流量与降雨强度呈显著正相关关系,但是穿透雨率和茎秆流率与降雨强度的关系不显著。茎秆流量和冠层截留量及其二者占总降雨量的比率均与作物叶面积指数呈显著正相关关系,但穿透雨量及穿透雨率随叶面积指数增加呈显著下降趋势。     

基于i-Tree Eco模型的城市林冠雨水截留和径流削减效益研究——以北京建筑大学西城校区为例

乔木冠层雨水截留作用对降雨产流和径流削减有显著影响,而国内相关的模型研究较少。在现有城市截留效益模型比较和植被实地调查的基础上,利用i-Tree Eco模型评估2014~2018年北京建筑大学西城校区内21种乔木冠层的雨水截留和径流削减效益,推导计算径流削减量的校准方法,并结合相关性分析和回归分析探究城市林冠截留影响因素的作用规律。结果表明:近5年校区内乔木的年均截留体积1365.38m³,平均年截留率10.6%,年均径流削减量266.83m³,校准后较原结果平均增加14.5%;叶面积与年截留体积呈显著线性正相关关系;降雨因素在月尺度下对截留作用及其径流削减能力的影响更显著,月截留量与月降雨天数呈线性正相关关系;径流削减量在降雨较小时对林下不透水面占比更敏感。研究可为国内相关模型评估和城市提升绿地雨水消纳能力等提供参考。     

冬小麦冠层截留及其消散过程

采用擦拭法测定冬小麦不同生育时期的冠层截留。研究发现冬小麦最大冠层截留量为1mm,发生在抽穗开花期,也是叶面积指数最大值时期。在冬小麦生长前期,冠层截留随着叶面积指数的增大而增大,后期冠层截留随着叶面积指数的减少而减少。冠层截留消散过程主要受空气温度和湿度等气象要素的影响,温度越高、相对湿度越低,冠层截留消散的越快;温度越低、相对湿度越高,冠层截留消散的越慢。冠层截留消散过程还受小麦水量的影响,在喷灌刚结束时,小麦植株上的水分多,冠层截留消散的较快,随着水分的蒸发,冠层截留消散的速度减慢。     

内蒙古黄土高原区降水规律与集雨利用潜力分析

在黄土高原干旱少雨,地下水埋深较深的地区,通过建立水窖集雨供人畜饮用和作物补充灌溉具有重要意义。本研究利用沙圪堵镇的准格尔旗气象站1959—2000年气象资料,进行降水规律分析。结果表明,位于内蒙古黄土高原区的准格尔旗年均降水量为392.1mm,最大年降水量为635.5mm,最小降水量仅为142.5mm。年降水量在500mm以上的保证率为19%,接近五年一遇,年降水量400mm以上的保证率为44%,可基本上满足短季耐旱作物的生长之需;降水量在300mm之下的频率为21%,不能满足作物生长对水分的需求。有1/3的年份年降水量300—400mm之间,作物生长所需水分亏缺的部分,需要适当补灌。由于4—5月作物播种和苗期降水量少,存在生长障碍,如能在前一年集雨次年春天补充灌溉将有利于全苗和增产。对于10mm以上的降水,保证率80%以上的降水量仅为135mm,保证率60%的降水量为200mm。中雨雨量为达到300mm的保证率只有30%。对于大雨过程,总降水量200mm只有15%的可能性,100mm以上的保证率为60%。如果降水10mm以上才能集到雨水,100m2的集雨面,只有60%的年份产水量大于20方。不同集雨面的集流效益不同,在建立集雨水窖时,要根据水窖体积和集雨面材料的集流效率,合理确定集雨面,保证80%以上的年份达到满意的集雨效果。另外,根据降水规律可利用自然地面进行田间集雨,利用土壤库容保存降水供作物生产之用。     

Variations of precipitation characteristics during the period 1960–2014 in the Source Region of the Yellow River,China

Precipitation, a natural feature of weather systems in the Earth, is vitally important for the environment of any region. Under global climate change condition, the characteristics of precipitation have changed as a consequence of enhanced global hydrological cycle. The source region of the Yellow River(SRYR), locating within the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, is sensitive to the global climate change due to its complex orography and fragile ecosystem. To understand the precipitation characteristics and its impacts on the environment in the region, we studied the characteristics of rainy days and precipitation amount of different precipitation classes, such as light(0–5 and 5–10 mm), moderate(10–15, 15–20 and 20–25 mm) and heavy(≥25 mm) rains by analyzing the precipitation data of typical meteorological stations in the SRYR during the period 1961–2014, as well as the trends of persistent rainfall events and drought events. Results showed that annual average precipitation in this area had a non-significant(P>0.05) increasing trend, and 82.5% of the precipitation occurred from May to September. Rainy days of the 0–5 mm precipitation class significantly decreased, whereas the rainy days of 5–10, 10–15, and 20–25 mm precipitation classes increased and that of ≥25 mm precipitation class decreased insignificantly. The persistent rainfall events of 1-or 2-day and more than 2-day showed an increasing trend, with the 1-or 2-day events being more frequent. Meanwhile, the number of short drought periods(≤10 days) increased while long drought periods(>10 days) decreased. Since the 0–5 mm precipitation class had a huge impact on the grasslands productivity; the 5–10, 10–15, and 20–25 mm precipitation classes had positive effects on vegetation which rely on the deep soil water through moving nutrients and water into the root zone of these vegetation or through the plant-microbe interactions; the ≥25 mm precipitation class contributed to the floods; and more persistent rainfall events and fewer long drought events inferred positive effects on agriculture. Thus, these results indicate grassland degradation, less risk of floods, and the upgrading impact of climate change on agriculture. This study may provide scientific knowledge for policymakers to sustain the eco-environmental resources in the SYSR.     

氟唑活化酯诱导大白菜抗根肿病的研究

本文研究了我国具有自主知识产权的新型化合物氟唑活化酯诱导大白菜对根肿病的抗病效果及诱导技术。荧光染色观察发现该化合物对根肿菌休眠孢子没有明显的杀死作用,但具有明显的诱导抗病效果。不同的诱导浓度、诱导间隔期和诱导次数对根肿病的诱抗效果均不同。温室盆栽试验结果显示,25 mg/L的氟唑活化酯间隔7 d诱导大白菜3次,对根肿病的防病效果最好,达到71.33%,与诱抗剂苯并噻二唑效果相当,显著高于杀菌药剂50%氟啶胺悬浮剂拌土的防效(63.32%)。田间从苗期开始用氟唑活化酯25 mg/L诱导大白菜3次,诱导间隔期为7 d,对根肿病的诱抗效果最好达69.99%±2.01%,略低于对照杀菌剂氟啶胺拌土施药。本文明确了新型诱抗剂氟唑活化酯诱导大白菜对根肿病的抗病效果,并系统研究了施药技术,为白菜根肿病的防治提供了新手段。     

嗜菌异小杆线虫的分离鉴定及生物学特性分析

为了发掘具有耐高温特性的昆虫病原线虫,本实验室对在山东地区采集的122份土样进行了线虫分离,得到异小杆线虫JNR,扩增其ITS基因和D2-D3基因,并构建系统进化树,分析可得:线虫JNR与嗜菌异小杆线虫Heterorhabditis bacteriophora在同一分支,同源性达到98%以上,为嗜菌异小杆线虫品系。为进一步了解该线虫品系的生物学特性,本试验研究了其侵染力、高温耐受力及水平运动能力。结果表明,线虫JNR有较好的耐热性,38℃条件下处理16 h,存活率最高54%,24 h时为32%;40℃水浴处理2 h,低浓度500 IJs/mL下存活率28%,3 h后全部死亡。对大蜡螟和小菜蛾的生测结果显示,在10、15、20、25、30、35、40、60、120、240 IJs/头剂量下处理24 h,蔬菜害虫小菜蛾先出现死亡,大蜡螟则在48 h后出现死亡;大于20 IJs/头剂量下,处理48 h后线虫对大蜡螟的校正死亡率达到59.5%,高于对小菜蛾的侵染效果。在剂量120 IJs/头以上,72 h后寄主的校正死亡率均能达到100%。异小杆线虫JNR在30℃条件下水平运动能力比在18、25℃时强,48 h时有31%的个体运动到3.6 cm处。以上研究表明,该线虫有较强的侵染力,特别是在温度相对较高时具有较好的耐热力和水平运动能力,对防治蔬菜田小菜蛾具有应用开发潜力。