凡纳滨对虾群体杂交与自交 F1低溶氧与高氨氮耐受性比较

利用6个遗传背景不同的凡纳滨对虾(Litopenaeus vannamei)群体,通过群体间自交与杂交建立了8个交配组合。对不同交配组合F1,在幼虾和成虾阶段,进行低溶氧与高氨氮48 h胁迫试验,比较不同交配组合群体在不同生长阶段的高氨氮与低溶氧耐受性。结果显示,低溶氧胁迫,YH♀×ZX♂、SS♀×SS♂、HD♀×YH♂交配组合幼虾存活率分别为76.23%、74.61%、74.38%,显著高于其他交配组合存活率(P0.05),成虾的存活率分别为83.08%、65.57%、71.12%,可作为耐低溶氧优良品系选育的候选材料;高氨氮胁迫,YH♀×KN♂、HD♀×YH♂、YH♀×ZK♂交配组合幼虾存活率分别为97.71%、86.43%、80.01%,显著高于其他交配组合(P0.05),成虾存活率分别为85.53%、74.18%、69.23%,可作为耐高氨氮优良品系选育的候选材料;HD♀×YH♂交配组合低溶氧与氨氮耐受性均较好,但不同交配组合低溶氧与氨氮耐受性间相关性检验不显著(P0.05)。研究发现,亲本中雌虾来源为YH,子代低溶氧耐受性优良,推断抗低溶氧性状为母系主导遗传;对虾低溶氧的耐受性随着生长发育的进行而降低,高氨氮耐受性随着生长发育的进行而增强;各交配组合高氨氮和低溶氧耐受性,在幼虾阶段和成虾阶段均呈极显著相关(P0.01),表明凡纳滨对虾低溶氧与高氨氮耐受性适宜在幼虾阶段进行遗传评估。     

凡纳滨对虾选育群体子代仔虾幼体耐低盐能力比较研究

为研究凡纳滨对虾选育性状,在实验水温25.0～29.3℃、实验时间48 h条件下,本研究对A、B、C、D四个凡纳滨对虾选育群体的自交和杂交不同交配组合子代的仔虾幼体(发育期P_(11)～P_(12),体长6.09～7.54 mm)进行了耐低盐能力的比较实验,以48 h的存活率和体长为指标综合评价不同种源子代仔虾幼体的耐低盐能力。结果显示,当盐度为3时,在17个实验组中,低存活率的6个组(存活率17.69%～57.37%)和高存活率的11个组(存活率68.72%～96.10%)存在显著差异(P0.05);耐低盐能力最强的2个实验组分别是A群种虾和D群种虾的正、反杂交子代,而耐低盐能力最弱的2个实验组分别是D群种虾和C群种虾的自交子代。实验结果表明凡纳滨对虾不同种源、不同交配组合繁育的子代仔虾,其耐低盐能力存在差异,研究结果可为对虾选育研究提供参考。     

凡纳滨对虾3 个引进群体及其杂交子代的生长性能评估

以3个凡纳滨对虾(Litopenaeus vannamei)引进群体为亲本,按照Griffing I方法进行双列杂交,对子代杂交组合体质量进行长期跟踪测量,分析幼虾阶段、成虾阶段、留种阶段的特定生长率和杂种优势率。研究结果表明,9个交配组合群体3个生长发育阶段体质量最小二乘均值的变化范围分别为5.86~12.15 g、14.79~28.82 g和38.25~54.74 g,其中各生长发育阶段杂交组均值均比自交组高。各阶段的特定生长率分别为3.40~5.70%/d、1.11~2.56%/d和0.33~0.68%/d。杂种优势分析结果显示,凡纳滨对虾各杂交组合体质量存在较明显的杂种优势,幼虾阶段、成虾阶段、留种阶段表现为递减趋势,其中迈阿密SIS的M群体母本与夏威夷的H群体父本杂交组合(M-H)杂种优势率最高。M群体作为父本亦或母本其子代体质量的最小二乘均值均较高,且不同生长阶段双亲均值均高于3个群体的均值,属于相对优良的亲本,M-H和M-T杂交组合属于优选杂交组合。该研究为进一步家系选育基础群体的建立提供了技术参数和理论依据。     

斑节对虾家系氨氮耐受性的比较

以非洲（F）、泰国（T）、印尼（Y）3个地理群体的野生斑节对虾（Penaeus1Ttonodon）为亲本构建家系,通过96h氨氮急性毒性试验对其中45个家系进行氨氮耐受性的比较研究。结果表明,在96h高氨氮的胁迫下各家系的死亡率为15．56％～100％,斑节对虾家系间对氨氮的耐受性差异极显著（P〈0．01）。其中死亡率低于30％的高氨氮耐受性家系有7个,死亡率在30％～60％的中等氨氮耐受性家系有29个,死亡率高于60％的低氨氮耐受性家系9个。不同父本和母本来源的家系氨氮耐受性由高到低分别为来源非洲、印尼和泰国。不同交配组合氨氮耐受性由高到低分别为F♀×F♂、Y♀×Y♂、Y♀×T♂、T♀×Y♂和T♀×T♂。对印尼和泰国杂交组合家系的氨氮耐受性进行杂交优势分析,结果表明,杂交组合在氨氮耐受性表现出一定的杂交优势（1．98％～19．80％）,其中Y♀×T♂组合的杂交优势高于T♀×Y♂组合。     

凡纳滨对虾群体自交与杂交子代幼体对低温、低盐抗逆性与生长比较

为提高凡纳滨对虾种苗质量,探索群体选择育种和杂交育种方法在凡纳滨对虾大规模人工育苗生产中的应用,对1个经过人工选择的凡纳滨对虾群体A的自交和杂交子代的抗逆性和生长性状进行了比较。群体A是2008年来自美国种虾的子一代,并经过2个世代的人工选择和自交传代。群体B为2010年来自广东的繁育群体。A群体自交,及其与B群体的正、反杂交,产生3组不同交配组合的子代。对3个组合后代仔虾幼体的抗低温、低盐能力及养成期的生长性状进行比较分析,结果表明,以A群体为母本的杂交组AB抗逆性最强,以B群体为母本的杂交组BA抗逆性次之,而A群体自交组抗逆性最弱。在低温(13.0±0.9) ℃和低盐4.7条件下,AB组存活率分别比AA组高27.6%和64.4%。3个组合养成期的体质量生长速度为AB组(253±55) mg/d、 BA组(208±52) mg/d、AA组(219±36) mg/d,AB组比BA组快21.6%,比AA组快15.5%。研究表明,凡纳滨对虾的杂交优势与亲本的提纯、选优密切相关。     

斑节对虾3个种质群体体质量性状配合力及杂种优势分析

该研究利用斑节对虾(Penaeus monodon)“南海1号”群体(S)、非洲品系选育群体(A)和泰国群体(T),采用完全双列杂交交配设计,建立9个自繁和杂交组合F1代。利用混合线性模型估计不同组合体质量性状的一般配合力(GCA)和特殊配合力(SCA)。结果显示,“南海1号”群体的一般配合力最高,其次是非洲品系选育群体,泰国群体的最低,其效应值分别为0.4373、?0.0624和?0.3749。9个交配组合的体质量性状的特殊配合力效应值介于?0.7798~0.613,其中非洲品系选育群体(♂)ד南海1号”群体(♀)组合(AS)体质量性状的特殊配合力最高,效应值为0.613。杂种优势分析表明,6个杂交交配组合的体质量性状中亲和超亲优势范围分别是8.41%~13.80%和2.66%~7.97%,其中非洲品系选育群体(♂)ד南海1号”群体(♀)组合(AS)的中亲杂种优势(HM)和超亲杂种优势(HB)最大,分别为13.80%和7.97%。研究表明,“南海1号”群体为母本,非洲品系选育群体为父本的杂交组合特殊配合力和杂种优势最好,可以考虑加强该组合在体质量性状方面的选育。     

凡纳滨对虾选育群体子代免疫性能的初步分析

在凡纳滨对虾群体选择育种研究中,利用1个经过人工选择和自交传代的凡纳滨对虾群体F2A,连续两个世代对该群体自交繁育的子代及其与其它群体杂交繁育的子代,进行免疫指标的检测和分析。结果表明,该群体两个世代的自交组繁育的子代F3A和F4A组,多项免疫指标都高于同世代的其它交配组,其中血细胞吞噬杀伤活性F3A组比同世代其它组高14.8%和64.3%,F4A组比同世代的其他组高27.0%～44.8%;血清溶细胞活性F3A组比同世代其它组高76.3%和74.6%,F4A组比同世代其它组高36.5%～58.3%;血清蛋白含量也高于其它组;只有酚氧化酶低于其它组。显示在人工选育条件下,凡纳滨对虾群体内自交传代,可能有利于群体免疫性能的遗传。但杂交组在生长和抗逆方面表现的杂交优势,与其偏低的免疫指标不一致。     

抗逆快长凡纳滨对虾设计育种与新品种培育技术

<正>本研究针对凡纳滨对虾的生长速度和抗逆性这两个性状进行探讨,通过选取自交传代的凡纳滨对虾群体和与另一个群体的杂交子代的仔虾幼体,然后对比这几个群体的仔虾幼体的耐低盐、低氧能力以及生长速度,旨在设计和培育抗逆快长凡纳滨对虾新品种,增加凡纳滨对虾的生长速度,提高凡纳滨对虾的存活率,从而提高养殖者     

凡纳滨对虾生长与高氨氮耐受性的遗传力及选择反应研究

基于选择指数法对凡纳滨对虾(Litopenaeus vannamei)生长和高氨氮耐受性进行选择,用3种方法评估选择效果:Ⅰ)比较选择系和对照系相关性状的育种值;Ⅱ)比较选择家系和对照家系的最小二乘均值;Ⅲ)比较选择系与对照系表型值,计算相关性状的现实遗传力、遗传获得,并采用BLUP法估算相关性状的遗传力及遗传相关。结果显示,生长性状的选择反应为0.493~1.039,高氨氮耐受存活的选择反应为0.028~0.046;凡纳滨对虾生长性状的现实遗传力为0.288~0.315,遗传获得为6.45%~20.16%,高氨氮耐受成活率的现实遗传力为0.016,遗传获得为2.09%;BLUP法估算生长性状遗传力为0.216~0.284,且显著(P0.05),高氨氮耐受性遗传力为0.028±0.026,生长性状间呈高度遗传正相关为0.871~0.948,体质量与高氨氮耐受性间的正遗传相关为0.180±0.032,且显著(P0.05)。研究表明,采用选择指数法选育一代后,生长性状提高明显,高氨氮耐受性提高较小;选育群体生长性状具有较大遗传改良潜力,如何快速提高选育群体的高氨氮耐受性有待进一步研究。     

凡纳滨对虾选育群体子代仔虾幼体耐低温能力比较研究

为探索凡纳滨对虾选育技术方法,以A、B、C、D四个凡纳滨对虾选育群体的自交和杂交不同交配组合子代的仔虾幼体,进行耐低温能力的比较实验。实验仔虾发育期为P_(11)～P_(12),体长6.09～7.54 mm,实验水温为13.5～19.0℃,实验时间48 h。统计24、36和48 h的存活率,结合体长因素综合评价不同种源子代各组仔虾幼体的耐低温能力。结果表明,从低温实验24 h开始各组存活率出现显著差异。在实验48 h时,16个交配组合中,4组存活率最高且与A群种虾有关(与D群无关)的交配组合平均存活率为10.35%。而4组存活率最低且与A群种虾无关的组合,其中3组与D群有关的交配组合平均存活率为0%。不同种源子代仔虾幼体耐低温能力存在差异。     

Association between the interannual variation in the oceanic environment and catch rates of bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) in the Atlantic Ocean

The environmental processes associated with variability in the catch rates of bigeye tuna in the Atlantic Ocean are largely unexplored. This study used generalized additive models (GAMs) fitted to Taiwanese longline fishery data from 1990 to 2009 and investigated the association between environmental variables and catch rates to identify the processes influencing bigeye tuna distribution in the Atlantic Ocean. The present findings reveal that the year (temporal factor), latitude and longitude (spatial factors), and major regular longline target species of albacore catches are significant for the standardization of bigeye tuna catch rates in the Atlantic Ocean. The standardized catch rates and distribution of bigeye tuna were found to be related to environmental and climatic variation. The model selection processes showed that the selected GAMs explained 70% of the cumulative deviance in the entire Atlantic Ocean. Regarding environmental factors, the depth of the 20 degree isotherm (D20) substantially contributed to the explained deviance; other important factors were sea surface temperature (SST) and sea surface height deviation (SSHD). The potential fishing grounds were observed with SSTs of 22–28°C, a D20 shallower than 150 m and negative SSHDs in the Atlantic Ocean. The higher predicted catch rates were increased in the positive northern tropical Atlantic and negative North Atlantic Oscillation events with a higher SST and shallow D20, suggesting that climatic oscillations affect the population abundance and distribution of bigeye tuna.     

Protein and amino acid composition from the mantle of juvenile O ctopus vulgaris exposed to prolonged starvation

Protein and amino acid composition of the mantle of juvenile O ctopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) during fasting for 27 days were determined. Average protein content of octopus mantle was of 711.19 ± 46.80 g kg^?1 DW, and it decreased with increasing fasting days. The non‐essential amino acids content was higher (486.18 ± 11.08 g kg^?1 protein) than essential amino acids (425.82 ± 9.15 g kg^?1 protein) at the start of the experiment (unstarved animals). The results suggest that the amino acid profile of the mantle where the most abundant amino acids are Arg, His, Lys, Gly, Leu and Pro could indicate a prolonged fasting condition (>20 days) or poor nutrition of O . vulgaris. This study supports the idea of using mantle for metabolic needs of starved O . vulgaris suggesting that the degradation pathway of amino acids to pyruvate and tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates was favoured contrary to the degradation pathway of ketogenic amino acids. Special considerations should be taken concerning Thr, Ile, Ser, Ala, Asx (Asp, Asn), Glx (Glu, Gln) (because of their fast intake) and Lys and His (due to their stable contents) during a prolonged period of fasting.     

Growth performance,digestive enzyme activity and immune response of Japanese sea bass,Lateolabrax japonicus fed with fructooligosaccharide

In this experiment, a feeding trial was performed to determine the effects of fructooligosaccharide (FOS) on growth performance, digestive enzyme activity and immune response of Japanese sea bass, Lateolabrax japonicus juveniles (initial weight 38.3 ± 0.5 g), and the fish were examined following feeding with six levels of FOS (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 6 g/kg) for 28 days. Significant enhancement of weight gain (WG) and specific growth rate (SGR) was found in fish fed 1 g/kg FOS incorporated diets (p < .05), while the feed conversion ratio (FCR) in the 1, 2 g/kg FOS groups reduced significantly compared with the control (p < .05). Besides, the crude lipid in the 4, 6 g/kg FOS groups increased significantly compared with the control (p < .05). On the other hand, the erepsin and lipase activities significantly elevated in intestine of fish fed 2 g/kg FOS (p < .05) and the lysozyme activity in serum of fish fed 2 g/kg FOS were significantly higher than that in the control (p < .05). Moreover, the alkaline phosphatase activities in serum of fish fed 0.5, 1, 2 g/kg FOS were significantly higher than in control (p < .05). Regression analysis showed that the relationships between dietary FOS levels and either SGR, FCR, erepsin or lysozyme activities were best expressed by regression equations, and the optimal inclusion levels are 1.37, 1.80, 3.06, 3.11, 1.93 and 1.80 g/kg for SGR, FCR, erepsin, lipase, lysozyme and total superoxide dismutase activities, respectively. Overall, this study revealed that FOS incorporated diets could beneficial for L. japonicus culture in terms of increasing the growth, digestion and immune activities. Under the present experimental condition, the optimal supplementary level of FOS in the diet of L. japonicus is 1–3 g/kg.     

美人鱼发光杆菌对凡纳滨对虾非特异性 免疫功能及抗病力的影响

在基础饲料中分别添加0.1%和1%美人鱼发光杆菌灭活菌、0.1%美人鱼发光杆菌活菌配制成3种免疫实验饲料,以基础饲料为空白对照组饲料,每组设3个平行样。对个体质量为(4.83±0.36)g的凡纳滨对虾进行为期20 d的饲养实验,分别在0、5、10、15和20d进行取样,以血清中的酚氧化酶(PO)、酸性磷酸酶(ACP)、碱性磷酸酶(AKP)、超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)和溶菌酶(UL)活性为免疫指标,探讨了美人鱼发光杆菌作为免疫制剂对凡纳滨对虾非特异性免疫效应的影响;在投喂免疫饲料后的第22天,按0.004 2 kg/kg体重的剂量,直接投喂对虾白斑综合征病毒(WSSV)病料,并记录累积死亡率。结果表明,美人鱼发光杆菌免疫实验组对凡纳滨对虾血清中PO、ACP、AKP、UL和SOD活性影响明显高于对照组,并且在饲料中添加美人鱼发光杆菌后,明显提高了对虾抵御WSSV感染的能力。其中0.1%美人鱼发光杆菌活菌实验组的抗病毒感染能力最强,WSSV感染14d内累计死亡率为63.3%±5.8%;而对照组为96.7%±3.3%。研究表明,美人鱼发光杆菌添加在对虾饲料中能提高凡纳滨对虾非特异性免疫水平,增强抵抗疾病的能力,将其作为对虾免疫增强剂具有良好的应用前景。     

Effects of Spirulina platensis as a feed additive on growth and coloration of blue dolphin cichlids (Cyrtocara moorii Boulunger, 1902)

This study was carried out to investigate the effects of replacing fish meal with dietary Spirulina as a feed supplement on the growth performance and coloration of blue dolphin cichlids (Cyrtocara moorii). Five isonitrogenous (47% crude protein) and isocaloric (17.36 kJ/g digestible energy) diets were for formulated to replace FM with 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20% Spirulina (designated as Control, SP5, SP10, SP15 and SP20 respectively) and fed to the fish (initial body weight, 3.15 ± 0.01 g). Fish were randomly distributed into fifteen 120 L aquariums (26.5 ± 1.00°C), 15 fish per aquarium. The diets were tested in triplicate for 12 weeks. Experimental groups were fed twice daily (09:00 and 17:00) by hand to satiation. At the end of the feeding trial, significantly (p < 0.05) higher weight gain (WG), specific growth rate (SGR), protein efficiency ratio (PER) and lower feed conversion ratio (FCR) were observed in fish fed the SP10 diet when compared to the SP20 diet. There was no significant difference in these parameters between the other groups. The skin coloration of blue dolphin cichlid fed a diet containing Spirulina meal was enhanced. The best coloration was observed in the SP15 group. These impressions were objectively validated by chemical determinations of carotenoids extracted from fish skins and passed statistical tests of significance. The study findings show that Spirulina meal does not diminish growth rates except at very high levels.     

Dietary thiamin and pyridoxine requirements of fingerling Indian major carp,Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton)

Two experiments were conducted to quantify the dietary thiamin (experiment I) and pyridoxine (experiment II) requirements of fingerling Cirrhinus mrigala for 16 weeks. In experiment I, dietary thiamin requirement was determined by feeding seven casein–gelatin‐based diets (400 g kg^?1 CP; 18.69 kJ g^?1 GE) with graded levels of thiamin (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 mg kg^?1 diet) to triplicate groups of fish (6.15 ± 0.37 cm; 1.89 ± 0.12 g). Fish fed diet with 2 mg kg^?1 thiamin had highest specific growth rate (SGR), protein retention (PR), RNA/DNA ratio, haemoglobin (Hb), haematocrit (Hct), RBCs and best feed conversion ratio (FCR). However, highest liver thiamin concentration was recorded in fish fed 4 mg thiamin kg^?1 diet. Broken‐line analysis of SGR, PR and liver thiamin concentrations exhibited the thiamin requirement in the range of 1.79–3.34 mg kg^?1 diet (0.096–0.179 μg thiamin kJ^?1 gross energy). In experiment II, six casein–gelatin‐based diets (400 g kg^?1 CP; 18.69 kJ g^?1 GE) containing graded levels of pyridoxine (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg kg^?1 diet) were fed to triplicate groups of fish (6.35 ± 0.37 cm; 1.97 ± 0.12 g). Fish fed diet containing 6 mg kg^?1 pyridoxine showed best SGR, FCR, PR, RNA/DNA ratio, Hb, Hct and RBCs, whereas maximum liver pyridoxine concentration was recorded in fish fed 8 mg kg^?1 dietary pyridoxine. Broken‐line analysis of SGR, PR and liver pyridoxine concentrations reflected the pyridoxine requirement from 5.63 to 8.61 mg kg^?1 diet. Data generated during this study would be useful in formulating thiamin‐ and pyridoxine‐balanced feeds for the intensive culture of this fish.     

Sea bream culture in Egypt; status, constraints and potential

Marine fish farming in Egypt began in 1976 with the culture of gilthead sea bream, (Sparus aurata) as this fish was notably adaptable to brackish and marine pond conditions. Today, marine fish and shrimp farms amount to about 19,000 ha, out of which 42% is already in production while the rest, i.e., 58% is still under construction. In 1997, cultured gilthead sea bream production of 2,250 tons made up 3% of the 75,000 tons total aquaculture catch. In polyculture, usually with the grey mullet and sea bass, gilthead sea bream contributed 440 kg ha^–1 to the total yield of 1,700 kg ha^–1 (26%) over a period of 16 months. For the same period, the yield of monoculture ponds averaged 100 kg ha^–1, while in marine cages, yields ranged from 4–10 kg m³. In 1996–1997, fry of 0.25–1 g and fingerlings 1–10 g with a total of 3 million, were collected from the wild and 1 million fry were produced in the three marine hatcheries out of the four existing ones. The development of sea bream culture in Egypt is now severely inhibited by the shortage of seeds and adequate feeds. Exports of both sea bream and sea bass, during 1994–1996 averaged 1,300 tons per year.     

A Minchinia mercenariae‐like parasite infects cockles Cerastoderma edule in Galicia (NW Spain)

The cockle Cerastoderma edule fishery has traditionally been the most important shellfish species in terms of biomass in Galicia (NW Spain). In the course of a survey of the histopathological conditions affecting this species in the Ria of Arousa, a haplosporidan parasite that had not been observed in Galicia was detected in one of the most productive cockle beds of Galicia. Uni‐ and binucleate cells and multinucleate plasmodia were observed in the connective tissue mainly in the digestive area, gills and gonad. The parasite showed low prevalence, and it was not associated with abnormal cockle mortality. Molecular identification showed that this parasite was closely related to the haplosporidan Minchinia mercenariae that had been reported infecting hard clams Mercenaria mercenaria from the Atlantic coast of the United States. The molecular characterization of its SSU rDNA region allowed obtaining a fragment of 1,796 bp showing 98% homology with M. mercenariae parasite. Phylogenetic analysis supported this identification as this parasite was clustered in the same clade as M. mercenariae from the United States and other M. mercenariae‐like sequences from the UK, with bootstrap value of 99%. The occurrence of M. mercenariae‐like parasites infecting molluscs outside the United States is confirmed.     

Involvement of gonadal steroids in final oocyte maturation of white perch (Morone americana) and white bass (M. chrysops): in vivo and in vitro studies

Plasma estradiol-17 (E₂), testosterone (T), 17,20-dihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one (DHP) and 17,20,21-tri-hydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one (20-S) levels were measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA) in white perch (Morone americana) and white bass (M. chrysops) that were induced to undergo final oocyte maturation (FOM) with human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). Plasma DHP levels increased in females of both species in association with oocyte germinal vesicle migration (GVM) and germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD) and decreased thereafter. Plasma 20-S levels also increased with oocyte GVM in white bass, but were several-fold lower than DHP levels. Circulating E₂ and T levels were greatest during GVM and GVBD in both species and decreased to low levels during oocyte hydration and ovulation. Follicles from white perch and white bass which received a priming injection of hCG in vivo, produced both DHP and 20-S in vitro after exposure to hCG and their oocytes underwent GVBD. Ovarian incubates from unprimed fish of either species produced only E₂ and T and their oocytes did not complete GVBD. Oocytes from unprimed bass, but not perch, matured when follicles were exposed to hCG in vitro. Both trilostane and cycloheximide blocked in vitro production of DHP and 20-S and oocyte GVBD by white perch follices. DHP and 20-S were equipotent inducers of FOM in the GVBD bioassay. None of several other structurally-related steroids tested were effective within a physiological range of concentrations. These results indicate a role for DHP and 20-S in the control of FOM in white perch and white bass.