Psychophysics and the Sensory Assessment of Fish

Procedures for sensory evaluation of fish often give the appearance of being empirical, that is, having been developed from practice without any contribution of underlying theory. The fundamental principles of sensory evaluation lie in psychophysics, a branch of psychology. Some textbooks of sensory evaluation have sections on psychophysics, but they are based on what might be called classical psychophysics which is summarized by the Weber/Fechner laws. Contemporary psychophysics has theories and practices which have wider applications in sensory evaluation of foods than classical psychophysics and can be applied to the advantage in the sensory analysis of fish. Three examples from the author's own experience will be presented in this discussion paper: use of the Theory of Signal Detection in evaluating taints; use of similarity ranking methods and multidimensional scaling for grouping fish by sensory properties; and application of current ideas of scaling to the measurement of freshness.     

冷藏草鱼片新鲜度分级方法的建立

现有淡水鱼片评价方法存在评价体系单一、不稳定的问题,为提供一种冷藏草鱼片新鲜度分级方法,实验以生鲜鱼片的色泽、气味、组织形态、肌肉弹性和熟鱼片的气味、滋味、汤汁形态各细分感官描述为指标,依据主成分分析(PCA)和系统聚类分析(HCA)划分鲜度区间;将K值等理化指标和肌间线蛋白、肌钙蛋白T等生化指标与细分感官描述指标比较;最后依据感官、理化、生化指标的PCA和HCA结果,评价以上冷藏草鱼片新鲜度。结果显示,根据感官描述分析PCA和HCA,冷藏草鱼片可分为3个鲜度等级:0～1 d (一级鲜度),2～7 d (二级鲜度),8～10 d (三级鲜度)。一级鲜度终点肌间线蛋白和肌钙蛋白T相对灰度值下降至95.68%和96.75%;二级鲜度终点肌间线蛋白和肌钙蛋白T分别下降至56.4%和69.6%;三级鲜度终点肌间线蛋白和肌钙蛋白T相对灰度值分别下降至56.36%和52.85%。研究表明,HCA鲜度划分区间与细分感官描述分析鲜度划分区间一致,细分感官描述分析可较全面反映冷藏草鱼新鲜度变化情况;肌钙蛋白T与细分感官描述变化规律一致,可以根据其变化判定冷藏草鱼片的新鲜度。本研究依据细分感官评价指标划分了鲜度区间并评价了该方法;在此基础上,研究了肌间线蛋白和肌钙蛋白T变化规律与感官评价HCA的关系,得出肌钙蛋白T反映冷藏草鱼片鲜度效果好,为后续根据新鲜度指示蛋白的变化规律开发鱼肉新鲜度检测试纸奠定基础。     

环境DNA在水域生态中的研究进展

环境DNA(environmental DNA,eDNA)是指生物通过皮肤脱落、唾液、配子、粪便以及分泌物等方式向环境中释放的游离DNA。环境DNA具有敏感性、准确性以及容易操作等诸多优势,更能实时地反映物种多样性以及生物量等,近两三年受到了世界各地学者们的大量关注。水域环境高度复杂,环境DNA在水域生态领域具有重要的应用价值。本文主要从环境DNA在水域生态的应用以及研究方法方面对环境DNA的研究做一小结,同时介绍环境DNA在其他生境的应用,以期为水域生态的研究提供参考。     

电子鼻技术的研究进展及其在水产品鲜度评价中的应用

水产品的质量管理是水产加工企业的重要环节。传统上，水产品的鲜度主要是采用感官评价或气相色谱分析的方法进行的。这些方法费时昂贵，而且不便于对产品质量的适时监测。因此，高效、快捷的水产品质量监测技术的研究受到了很大关注。利用电子鼻测水产品的鲜度，被公认是一种快速、可靠、可实现自动检测、而且对水产品无任何伤害的新型技术。本文阐述了电子鼻的工作原理和化学传感器技术的研究进展，并且讨论了电子鼻技术在水产品鲜度评价中的应用和未来发展前景。     

Effect of electrical stunning at slaughter on the carcass, flesh and eating quality of farmed sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax)

Food quality aspects of farmed sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) were compared following two methods of slaughter: the normal commercial method of killing, by immersion in an ice slurry, or by first electrically stunning the fish, before immersion in an ice slurry. Quality was assessed for up to 10 days of storage on ice after slaughter. No differences were found between the slaughter methods in terms of an overall sensory evaluation of cooked fillets, or in terms of overall carcass quality: overall appearance, internal and external haemorrhage, fin damage, burst gall bladder, staining of the body cavity by leakage from the gut or damage to the spine. Using objective measurements of colour, no differences between fish from either treatment were found in terms of external colour or colour of the fillets. A chemical analysis of flesh nucleotide breakdown products as well as the freshness indicator K_i value did not differentiate the two treatments nor did the industry standard freshness scoring technique (QIM, quality index method), over 10 days of storage on ice. Flesh pH was marginally lower in electrically stunned fish at 4 h post mortem (6.42 cf 6.56) but by 24 h, pH in fish from both treatments had decreased to a similar level (6.22). Humane electrical stunning of sea bass at slaughter neither measurably improved nor decreased product quality for between 1 and 10 days of storage on ice. Electrical stunning accelerated the pattern of onset and resolution of rigor mortis. If electrical stunning were to be widely adopted, re‐education of buyers would be necessary as rigor mortis is currently used by buyers as a proxy measure of fish freshness.     

鲤鱼冷藏中的鲜度变化与货架期

以感官、化学和微生物为指标,研究了养殖鲤鱼在0℃(冰藏)、5℃、10℃和15℃贮藏过程中的鲜度变化和货架期,并对菌落总数、嗜冷菌、假单胞菌、挥发性盐基氮与感官评价的一致性程度进行了探讨。结果表明,在0℃、5℃、10℃、15℃的贮藏过程中,鲤鱼的高品质期分别为426 h、189 h、95 h和58 h,货架期分别为713 h、382 h、146 h和87 h。各温度高品质期终点和货架期终点时菌落总数分别为6.63±0.45 lg cfu/g、7.18±0.29 lg cfu/g,假单胞菌数分别为5.69±0.75 lg cfu/g、6.50±0.33 lg cfu/g,挥发性盐基氮均值分别为9.90±0.52 mg/100 g、20.52±0.34 mg/100 g。各温度下高品质期终点和货架期终点时各指标均值均无显著差异(P0.05),表明菌落总数、假单胞菌和挥发性盐基氮作为鲤鱼低温贮藏的鲜度指标与感官鲜度评价有较好的一致性。     

Development of Quality Index Method Scheme for Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio) Stored in Ice: Shelf-Life Assessment by Physicochemical,Microbiological, and Sensory Quality Indices

ABSTRACT

Sensory methods are the most interesting methods to estimate fish quality. Among these, the recently developed quality index method (QIM) has gained popularity, as shown by the multiple publications of QIM schemes in the last years. The objective of this study was to create a new QIM scheme (QIM sensory table and corresponding point system) for the common carp (Cyprinus carpio), basing the definition of the rejection point on sensory, physicochemical (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, total volatile basic nitrogen, pH, and color measurements), and microbiological criteria (counts of mesophiles, psychrotrophs, and Pseudomonas spp.). A new QIM scheme was developed and is proposed for use in the future; it will be useful for practical evaluations of carp freshness in all steps of the production chain, and it will contribute to a more effective use of the species as an alternative for human food supply.     

琼胶寡糖及EGCG对冰藏花鲈鱼片新鲜度与蛋白质生化特性的影响

花鲈贮运期间易受微生物与内源酶的联合作用,导致新鲜度及蛋白质生化特性改变,影响其食用价值。因此,采用适当的保鲜方式对花鲈贮运流通过程中的品质变化加以调控,以保证其品质安全显得尤为重要。为探究表没食子儿茶素没食子酸酯(EGCG)及琼胶寡糖(AO)对冰藏花鲈鱼片的保鲜效果,对硬度值、色差及新鲜度指标(硫代巴比妥酸值、K值、挥发性盐基氮、菌落总数、感官评分)进行测定,并对蛋白质生化特性(肌原纤维蛋白含量、二级结构、巯基、羰基含量)进行分析。结果显示,对照组在第16天时感官得分低于8,且菌落总数和K值已分别高达(6.78±0.15) lg(CFU/g)与67.37%±1.75%,不可食用,而EGCG组(EG)、琼胶寡糖组(AO)及复合组的样品仍具有较好的硬度、色泽及新鲜度。贮藏至20 d时对照组的TBA值高达(0.81±0.03) mg/kg,而EG组、AO组及复合组的TBA值在贮藏期间均未出现大幅度增加,且始终低于对照组。另外,贮藏至12 d时对照组的羰基含量已显著高于其他保鲜处理组,对照组在贮藏末期的羰基含量上升至(1.63±0.04)nmol/mg,而EG组、 AO组及复合组的羰基含量仅为(1.14±0.03)、(1.28±0.08)与(0.99±0.09) nmol/mg。贮藏末期复合组的蛋白含量、α螺旋、巯基均高于对照组和单一保鲜组。研究表明,EGCG及琼胶寡糖均能较好地维持鱼片的新鲜度,能显著抑制蛋白质变性与氧化,且二者复合后的保鲜效果优于单一保鲜剂,延长鱼片保质期至20 d以上。该研究为EGCG及琼胶寡糖的保鲜机理提供了理论基础,为开发高效的新型生物保鲜剂提供参考。     

Determination of the quality parameters of pike perch <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sander lucioperca</Emphasis> caught by gillnet,longline and harpoon in Turkey

ABSTRACT:   The effects of the different catching methods (gillnet, longline, harpoon) on sensory, chemical (pH, total volatile base nitrogen, K -value) and microbiological (total viable count [TVC]) changes in pike perch Sander lucioperca stored in ice were investigated. The same soaking time was used for both gillnet and longline fishing. The catching method had considerable influence on the freshness quality of pike perch. The acceptable shelf life was 15 days for pike perch caught by gillnet, and 22 days for longline and harpoon. The initial concentrations of inosine monophosphate (2.4 μmol/g) in pike perch caught by gillnet were significantly lower ( P  < 0.05) than longline (4.1 μmol/g), and especially by harpoon (16.7 μmol/g). However, the initial K -values for fish caught by harpoon were significantly ( P  < 0.05) lower (24.36%) than fish caught by longline and gillnet (57.69%, 64.41%, respectively). The average K , Ki, G and H -values at rejection day in terms of sensory assessment were approximately 90, 98, 156 and 40%, respectively, for all catching methods during ice storage. However, TVC reached 7.0 log cfu/g after approximately 11 days of storage for fish caught by gillnet, 19 days for fish caught by longline and 8 days for fish caught by harpoon. The result of this study suggests that the best catching method for preserving the freshness of pike perch is longline, based on the data obtained from the sensory and microbiological analysis.     

Fresh-Keeping Effects of Melanin-Free Extract From Squid Ink on Yellowfin Sea Bream (Sparus latus) During Cold Storage

Squid ink, a by-product from the squid production process, has been demonstrated to be a multifunctional marine bioactive material that can promote freshness of shiokara and peeled shrimp. However, the preservative effect it has on marine fish as well as its preservative mechanisms are still unknown. In this article, Sparus latus was used as a model to assess the preservative effects and the possible mechanism of the ink through chemical parameters, antibacterial effect, and sensory analysis. Melanin-free extract from squid ink at a concentration of 45 mg/mL and pH 8.5 was revealed to be effective in prolonging cold storage shelf life of Sparus latus, which was confirmed through comprehensive sensory analysis evaluation and measurement of chemical changes including pH, microbial count, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) value, and nucleotide analysis. It was also discovered that the extract mainly suppressed putrefying bacteria separated from Sparus latus, and the bacteriostatic range was confirmed to be wide. Squid ink significantly prolonged the cold storage period of Sparus latus, indicating that it may be developed to be a natural preservative for marine products.     

0 ℃冷藏条件下鲢阻抗特性与鲜度变化的相关性

为了更好地了解0 ℃冷藏条件下鲢（Hypophthalmichthys molitrix）鱼体的阻抗特性与鲜度的变化规律及相关性,建立鱼体鲜度快速检测方法,分别测定了鲢鱼片的品质指标[菌落总数、肌苷和次黄嘌呤浓度总和/ATP关联物浓度总和（K值）、汁液损失、感官评价]以及鲢鱼体的阻抗变化率（Q值）,分析了Q值与各品质指标的相关性。结果显示,随贮藏时间的延长,鱼片的菌落总数、K值和汁液损失率逐渐增加,感官评分和鱼体的Q值逐渐减小。第15天鱼片的菌落总数为（6.85±0.07）log cfu·g-1,K值为（63.97±1.93）%,汁液损失率为（6.26±0.01）%,感官评分为10.0±1.4分,Q值为（22.92±2.60）%,此时鱼片失去食用价值。Q值与菌落总数、K值、汁液损失和感官评价的相关系数R分别为0.972、0.976、0.945和0.984（P〈0.01）,表明Q值与各鲜度指标具有良好的相关性。在0 ℃贮藏条件下用Q值可快速、无损伤地评估鲢鲜度。     

Appraising the Shelf Life of Farmed Cobia,Rachycentron canadum,by Application of a Quality Index Method

Freshness is the main concern of seafood quality, and the principal method to evaluate seafood freshness is sensory evaluation. The aim of this work was to study the quality changes of cobia, Rachycentron canadum, under ice storage through sensory and physical analysis as well as bacterial counting of specific spoilage organisms (SSOs). In particular, the utilization of a quality index method (QIM) scheme was proposed. Samples stored for 0–30 d were analyzed with the QIM. Ten panelists observed and registered the changes occurring in the fish starting on day zero and ending when the fish were spoiled. After developing the scheme, 11 sensory attributes were described in 23 points, which detailed the appearance of skin, eyes, abdomen, gills, and flesh deterioration. The volatile nitrogen compound measurements and microbiological data of the SSOs determined a shelf‐life of 19 d for the samples. Sensory analysis showed a rejection point at 15.67 d of ice storage. The natural degradation of myofibrillar proteins and collagen was observed during ice storage. In conclusion, a shelf‐life of 15 d was defined for raw cobia stored on ice.     

Preslaughter Anesthesia with Lippia alba Essential Oil Delays the Spoilage of Chilled Rhamdia quelen

This study evaluated whether anesthesia with essential oil (EO) of Lippia alba (300 mg L^?1 for 4 min) prior to electronarcosis (128 V m^?1 × 300 Hz for 5 s) or hypothermia (ice/water slurry) could delay fish spoilage during chilled storage of whole fish. Silver catfish (Rhamdia quelen) were subjected to two different pre-stunning treatments (water or anesthesia with EO of L. alba) followed by two different stunning procedures (hypothermia or electrical stunning), yielding four groups (n = 32/group): water (control) + hypothermia, water (control) + electrical stunning, EO of L. alba + hypothermia, and EO of L. alba + electrical stunning. After stunning, fish were slaughtered by percussion and stored in ice. Preslaughter anesthesia with the EO of L. alba extended fish shelf life by delaying the loss of freshness (nucleotide degradation), growth of Enterobacteriaceae, and fish deterioration (sensory evaluation). Such preservative effect was most remarkable for fish that were subsequently submitted to electrical stunning, as they had the lowest demerit scores and greatest shelf life in the sensory evaluation. Our results showed that preslaughter anesthesia with EO of L. alba followed by electrical stunning can delay the loss of freshness and extend fish shelf life during chilled storage.     

电子鼻在对虾新鲜度评价中的应用

以凡纳滨对虾Litopenaeus vanmamei为实验对象,研究电子鼻对不同保藏时间的凡纳滨对虾虾头和虾肉的气味响应,并与感官指标、挥发性盐基氮(TVB-N)和菌落总数进行对比分析,建立一种基于电子鼻技术的对虾新鲜度评价方法.结果表明,随着保藏时间的延长,对虾的鲜度和气味发生变化；电子鼻能将不同保藏时间的对虾区分开来,而且与感官评定、TVB-N和菌落总数检测结果一致.负荷加载分析(Loadings)显示,不同传感器对主成分的贡献率不同；采用线性判别分析(LDA)所得的总贡献率高于主成分分析(PCA)所得的总贡献率.电子鼻对虾头和虾肉的气味均有较好的响应,因此虾头和虾肉都可以用于电子鼻评价对虾的新鲜度.     

Changes in Biochemical Compositions and Quality of White Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) During Storage

ABSTRACT

To understand biochemical characteristics, storage stability, and freshness indicators of white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei), changes in extractable nitrogenous compounds, microbial count, and sensory rating of white shrimp during storage at 25 and 4°C were investigated. Free amino acids showed a slow increase during storage at 25°C, but no obvious change was found at 4°C. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) were found at initial stage and decreased rapidly after storage. Both inosine 5′-monophosphate (IMP) and adenosine monophosphate (AMP) increased and then decreased during storage. Inosine, hypoxanthine, and the K-value gradually increased with time. The levels of total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N), NH₃, and trimethylamine (TMA) of white shrimp increased with storage time at 25 and 4°C. The TVB-N, NH₃, TMA, inosine, hypoxanthine, and K-value could be considered as freshness indicators of white shrimp during storage. However, the total plate count did not corroborate the acceptability recommended limits for white shrimp during storage. The sensory evaluation, associated with TVB-N, TMA, and K-value, showed the quality was unacceptable after 6 h storage at 25°C and 7 days at 4°C.     

化学冰保鲜非鲫的研究

以纯水冰作对比，研究了分别含有０．１％山梨酸钾和０．５％低分子壳聚糖的冰对非鲫的保鲜效果，感官评定，以及细菌总数，ＴＶＢ－Ｎ和Ｋ值的定量分析结果表明：山梨酸钾冰和ＬＭＷ－Ｃ冰的保鲜效果明显优于纯水冰，其保鲜期比纯水冲中保鲜的非鲫延长６天以上。但是，采用Ｋ值和ＴＶＢ－Ｎ值作鲜度指标所得出的结果有明显差异。     

大菱鲆0、25℃贮藏的鲜度变化和货架期

以感官、化学和微生物为指标,对大菱鲆在冰藏(0℃)、室温(25℃)贮藏过程中的鲜度变化和货架期进行了研究,并探讨了菌落总数(TVC)、挥发性盐基氮(TVBN)、三甲胺氮(TMA)与感官评价的一致性程度。结果表明,0℃和25℃贮藏大菱鲆,高品质期分别为526 h和26 h,货架期分别为763 h和49 h;TVC在高品质期终点分别为6.88、6.38 lg(cfu/g),在货架期终点分别为7.67、7.90 lg(cfu/g);TVBN在高品质期终点分别为15.97、16.46 mg/100g,在货架期终点分别为33.1、28.58 mg/100 g;TMA在高品质期终点分别为1.29、0.74 mg/100 g,在货架期终点分别为12.89、11.37 mg/100g。各指标间均无显著性差异(P>0.05),表明TVC、TVBN值、TMA值作为大菱鲆贮藏中的品质指标保持较好的一致性。大菱鲆0℃和25℃贮藏的主要腐败菌均为假单胞菌属(Pseudomonas spp.),其次为腐败希瓦氏菌(Shewanella putrefaciens)。     

市售皮蛋、咸蛋卫生质量调查研究

为调查市售蛋制品的卫生质量,试验采用感官检验、半微量定氮法分别对某地区市售皮蛋、熟咸鸭蛋进行了抽样检测,并测定了皮蛋的pH值。结果表明:熟咸鸭蛋的新鲜度合格率只达到80%;皮蛋的pH合格率为93.3%,而感官检查合格率只有73.4%,皮蛋的挥发性盐基氮值在9.43～23.10mg/100g范围内。     

大黄鱼冷藏过程肌肉蛋白质生化特性与新鲜度的相关性

为研究大黄鱼冷藏期间肌肉蛋白质变化与鲜度品质的相关性,以色差值、质构、挥发性盐基氮(TVB-N)以及感官评分等鲜度指标判断鱼肉品质,并结合肌肉蛋白质中盐溶性和水溶性蛋白质含量、总巯基含量、羰基含量、蛋白质分子量以及粒径分布等蛋白质生化特性指标,分析大黄鱼4 ℃冷藏10天肌肉蛋白质变化与鲜度品质的相关性。结果表明：冷藏期间大黄鱼鱼肉的L*,a*和w值下降,b*值上升;鱼肉咀嚼性、黏着性和硬度下降;TVB-N由(4.42±0.21)mg/100 g增至(38.46±0.87)mg/100 g,并于第8天达二级鲜度标准,感官评分第8天不可接受。冷藏期间大黄鱼盐溶性和水溶性蛋白质含量、总巯基含量、羰基含量变化趋势相似。盐溶性蛋白质含量呈先小幅上升后下降变化趋势,由(159.36±6.51)mg/g降至(91.99±13.82)mg/g,质量分数下降了42.27%,水溶性蛋白质含量由(33.68±2.13)mg/g降至(17.57±0.70)mg/g,质量分数下降了47.77%;盐溶性蛋白质的巯基含量和羰基含量分别由(3.95±0.04)mol/105 g pro降至(1.08±0.13)mol/105 g pro、(1.08±0.04)nmol/mg升至(3.94±0.43)nmol/mg,水溶性蛋白质巯基含量和羰基含量分别由(4.74±0.17)mol/105 g pro降至(2.66±0.15)mol/105 g pro、(0.21±0.14)nmol/mg升至(2.67±0.25)nmol/mg;盐溶性蛋白质粒径在冷藏第0～8天,由(203.32±5.44)nm增大至(425.40±8.63)nm,8天后降至(317.03±1.20)nm,水溶性蛋白质粒径从(190.80±0.30)nm降至(144.23±1.32)nm;SDS-PAGE电泳证明30 ku左右产生新的蛋白质条带且蛋白质量有一定程度减少。结果表明盐溶性和水溶性蛋白质生化特性与新鲜度有良好相关性,其中水溶性蛋白质相关性更好。