甘蓝型油菜SERK基因家族的鉴定与系统进化分析

体细胞胚胎发生类受体激酶（somatic embryogenesis receptor-like kinase，SERK）与植物体细胞胚发生，尤其是与植物非生物逆境胁迫响应有关。为鉴定甘蓝型油菜中BnaSERK基因家族成员、揭示其进化关系及其与油菜盐/旱胁迫的响应，利用生物信息学方法对甘蓝型油菜品种中双11的SERK家族成员、基因结构、进化关系、选择压力等进行系统分析，并初步分析了部分BnaSERK基因在盐/旱胁迫下的表达响应模式。结果表明：在甘蓝型油菜基因组共鉴定到24个BnaSERK基因，它们不均等地分布在15条染色体上，可分为3个亚族，具有相对保守的基因结构和保守基序，且含多种与激素和非生物胁迫响应相关的顺式作用元件。共线性分析表明，甘蓝型油菜和拟南芥、白菜、甘蓝分别有14对、44对和32对基因表现出共线性。基于比较基因组学研究，甘蓝型油菜BnaSERK基因在经历多倍体化之后，出现了不同程度的丢失现象。分析表明，BnaSERK基因家族在芸薹属物种间的进化相对保守。盐/旱胁迫下的5个BnaSERK基因在叶片中的表达模式分析结果显示，BnaA07g29610D、BnaC01g43240D、BnaCnng07810D基因在盐胁迫下表达量上调，而BnaA01g23070D、BnaA07g23390D基因则表现为下调；BnaA07g23390D、BnaA07g29610D基因在干旱胁迫下表现为上调表达，而BnaC01g43240D、BnaCnng07810D、BnaA01g23070D基因呈下调趋势。表明BnaSERK基因可能在油菜响应盐/旱胁迫的调控机制中发挥着重要作用。     

甘蓝型油菜BnNAC61 基因的克隆及表达特征分析

NAC(即NAM、ATAF和CUC)转录因子参与植物生长、发育、衰老和多种逆境胁迫反应的调控。为阐释甘蓝型油菜BnNAC61的表达特征,本研究采用RT-PCR方法,从甘蓝型油菜总cDNA中克隆BnNAC61基因。生物信息学分析表明,其CDS全长846 bp,编码281个氨基酸,N端含有NAM保守结构域;其启动子区存在W-box、响应抗性和胁迫、ABA、MeJA的顺式作用元件。利用烟草瞬时表达系统进行亚细胞定位,结果发现BnNAC61定位在细胞核。酵母试验表明,BnNAC61属于转录激活子,转录激活区位于136～208 aa区段。利用qRT-PCR研究BnNAC61的表达模式,结果表明,黑胫病菌(Leptosphaeria biglobosa)接种处理后,BnNAC61被显著诱导上调表达;逆境胁迫PEG、NaCl、4℃处理后BnNAC61被不同程度地诱导表达,表现先升高后降低的趋势;激素SA、MeJA和ACC处理后BnNAC61表达量显著高于对照(P0.05),而激素ABA处理后,BnNAC61表达被抑制。上述结果表明BnNAC61是参与多种逆境胁迫的转录因子,尤其可能在茉莉酸和乙烯信号途径中发挥重要作用。     

甘蓝型油菜异分支酸合酶基因的克隆及信号通路相关基因的诱导表达

为了解异分支酸合酶1(ICS1,水杨酸合成的限速酶)在甘蓝型油菜抗病过程中的功能,以甘蓝型油菜耐菌核病品种宁RS-1为材料,在核盘菌侵染时,研究甘蓝型油菜ICS1基因和水杨酸信号通路相关基因的诱导表达。首先利用同源序列法克隆得到宁RS-1中ICS1基因的c DNA序列,命名为Bn ICS1。Bn ICS1序列全长1 719bp,编码572个氨基酸残基,含有1个分支酸结合域。表明油菜中也存在异分支酸途径。接种核盘菌前、后及不同时期荧光实时定量PCR结果发现Bn ICS1在核盘菌接种后6hpi(接种后6h)表达量升高,但是24hpi后降低;而MPK4基因的表达量在6hpi降低,24hpi后升高,说明SA合成先是被核盘菌诱导,但随后又被抑制。EDS5基因和PR1基因表达量从接种后6hpi持续升高,而PDF1.2基因的表达量不断降低,说明SA信号通路最终受核盘菌诱导形成病斑,而茉莉酸途径及其诱导的植物防御反应受到抑制。     

甘蓝型油菜BnERF104超表达增强了转基因拟南芥对核盘菌的抗性

根据拟南芥乙烯响应因子AtERF104的序列设计保守引物,从甘蓝型油菜品种中双9号中克隆到AtERF104的同源基因BnERF104。序列分析表明BnERF104蛋白含有一个典型的ERF domain保守结构域,属于乙烯响应转录因子ERF家族的成员。甘蓝型油菜用核盘菌(Sclerotinia sclerotiorum)接种6h后,BnERF104基因被诱导显著上调表达。BnERF104基因在拟南芥中的超表达提高了病原相关蛋白(PR)防御素PDF1.2和几丁质酶ChiB基因的表达量,显著增强了对腐生营养型真菌核盘菌的抗性。     

甘蓝型油菜BnNAC转录因子鉴定与非生物胁迫响应分析

为了明确油菜NAC家族转录因子在非生物胁迫响应中的功能，通过油菜全基因组鉴定获得了379个Bn⁃ NAC转录因子家族成员，系统进化分析将其分为17个亚族。启动子作用元件分析显示BnNAC家族成员广泛参与 光响应、干旱胁迫响应、低温胁迫响应、生物钟调控等进程，同时参与ABA、茉莉酸甲酯、赤霉素、生长素、水杨酸等 激素信号途径。不同胁迫条件下基因表达分析发现，BnNAC家族基因受温度、盐、渗透等胁迫及ABA诱导调控。过 表达BnNAC253 基因使拟南芥对盐胁迫、渗透胁迫和ABA处理更为敏感。     

甘蓝型油菜BnERF50的超表达增强了转基因拟南芥对核盘菌的抗性

从接种核盘菌(Sclerotinia sclerotiorum)后的甘蓝型油菜品种中双9号cDNA芯片中筛选出一个新的抗性相关基因BnERF50。序列分析表明该基因产物BnERF50蛋白含有一个典型的ERF(乙烯相应转录因子)保守结构域,属于ERF家族成员。接种核盘菌24h后,该基因的表达量被诱导显著上调。在它的超表达转基因拟南芥中,病原相关蛋白(PR)防御素基因PDF1.2和几丁质酶基因ChiB的表达量升高,对腐生营养型真菌核盘菌的抗性显著增强。     

甘蓝型油菜MAP激酶4的序列及其诱导表达分析

拟南芥MPK4（AtMPK4）在病害抗性中具有重要作用。本文克隆和分析了油菜MPK4（BnMPK4）的cDNA及其氨基酸序列和诱导表达变化。推导的氨基酸序列含有T201E202Y203磷酸化位点和CD锚定区域,与AtMPK4的序列相似性为95%。用化学物质苯丙噻重氮、甲基茉莉酸、草酸以及核盘菌（Sclerotinia sclerotiorum）分别处理油菜品种中双9号,采用荧光定量PCR方法测定BnMPK4在各诱导或处理后的表达量。结果表明,苯丙噻重氮快速诱导该基因的表达,甲基茉莉酸抑制其表达;草酸和核盘菌均快速诱导该基因上调表达,并且二者的上调表达趋势相似。结果表明油菜MPK4可能在油菜菌核病防卫反应中起作用。     

大豆JAZ基因家族的鉴定及其对疫霉胁迫的响应

JAZ(Jasmonate ZIM-domain)蛋白是茉莉酸信号途径中重要的负调控因子,对植物的防御反应具有重要意义。然而,鲜有关于大豆JAZ基因的报道,为了揭示大豆中JAZ基因家族的特征和潜在功能,本研究利用生物信息学方法从大豆基因组中鉴定到24个JAZ基因,分别命名为GmJAZ1～GmJAZ24,并对这24个基因进行基因结构分析、保守基序分析、系统进化树构建、染色体定位、启动子顺式作用元件分析以及大豆疫霉菌胁迫下的响应分析。结果表明:(1)24个GmJAZs基因不均匀的分布在大豆的14条染色体上,其中9号染色体上分布的数目最多,为4个;(2)大豆、拟南芥和水稻的JAZ基因家族可分成5个亚组(C1～C5),其中大豆与拟南芥的JAZ基因亲缘关系最近;(3)该家族成员大多含有响应茉莉酸和脱落酸等激素的顺式作用元件,少数含有响应逆境胁迫的顺式作用元件;(4)大豆疫霉菌处理后,C4亚组成员显著上调表达,C1亚组成员微弱上调,而C2、C3和C5亚组成员下调表达,表明大豆JAZ基因家族成员对大豆疫霉菌的胁迫具有不同的响应模式。     

大豆转录因子GmWRKY4分子克隆与表达分析

为研究WRKY家族基因在大豆抵御非生物胁迫中的生物学功能及其作用机制,利用铁丰29,获得了大豆WRKY家族基因GmWRKY4的开放阅读框序列,并对其在不同非生物胁迫处理下的表达模式进行了分析。结果表明,GmWRKY4开放阅读框为1 083 bp、编码360个氨基酸残基;对其编码蛋白GmWRKY4进行保守域及同源性分析发现,属于WRKY转录因子家族第1类,与GsWRKY4高度同源;分析GmWRKY4与拟南芥WRKY转录因子系统进化树发现,与At WRKY3、At WRKY4相似性最高;进一步分析该基因在盐(NaCl处理)、干旱(PEG处理)与低温胁迫处理下的表达模式发现,GmWRKY4可参与对上述3种非生物胁迫的响应;同时分析基因在乙酰辅酶A羧化酶(ACC)、水杨酸(SA)、茉莉酸(JA)等激素处理下的表达模式发现,GmWRKY4可通过参与ACC、SA、JA信号通路实现对逆境胁迫的响应,为进一步深入研究该基因生物学功能及其作用机制奠定了基础。     

油菜F-box-LRR基因全基因组鉴定与核盘菌诱导应答分析

由核盘菌引起的菌核病是一种重要的真菌性病害,筛选菌核病抗病基因对抗病育种具有重要意义。F-box基因多参与植物抗逆反应,LRR作为抗病基因的重要结构域,在植物抗病防卫中起着重要的作用。本研究通过生物信息学方法在甘蓝型油菜基因组中对F-box-LRR基因进行了全基因组鉴定,基于已发表的中双11组织表达数据以及油菜不同品种中油821（抗病）和Westar（感病）接种核盘菌前后的转录组数据,对可能响应核盘菌诱导的BnF-box-LRR基因进行筛选,并结合荧光定量PCR进行验证。共鉴定到161个BnF-box-LRR基因,从系统进化树上可分为4个亚类（FBXLRR1,FBXLRR2,FBXLRR3和FBXLRR4）,其中第四亚类FBXLRR4在蛋白保守序列分布以及基因结构方面,与其它三个亚类具有较大差异,且与拟南芥参与植物抗逆的同源基因聚为一类,因此推测该分支可能主要参与植物胁迫响应。表达分析表明FBXLRR4家族基因在根和叶中有较高的表达水平,且在核盘菌诱导后具有明显的表达变化,暗示这些基因可能参与油菜菌核病抗性功能。     

Pharmacokinetics of Marine-Derived Drugs

Marine organisms represent an excellent source of innovative compounds that have the potential for the development of new drugs. The pharmacokinetics of marine drugs has attracted increasing interest in recent decades due to its effective and potential contribution to the selection of rational dosage recommendations and the optimal use of the therapeutic arsenal. In general, pharmacokinetics studies how drugs change after administration via the processes of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME). This review provides a summary of the pharmacokinetics studies of marine-derived active compounds, with a particular focus on their ADME. The pharmacokinetics of compounds derived from algae, crustaceans, sea cucumber, fungus, sea urchins, sponges, mollusks, tunicate, and bryozoan is discussed, and the pharmacokinetics data in human experiments are analyzed. In-depth characterization using pharmacokinetics is useful for obtaining information for understanding the molecular basis of pharmacological activity, for correct doses and treatment schemes selection, and for more effective drug application. Thus, an increase in pharmacokinetic research on marine-derived compounds is expected in the near future.     

La pourriture fongique des tubercules de pomme de terre en atmosphère contrôlée

Résumé Fusarium culmorum et, dans une moindre mesure,F. avenaceum, F. sambucinum, Colletotrichum coccodes etCylindrocarpon sp. ont été isolés de tubercules entreposés en atmosphère contr?lée (AC) et atteints de pourriture grave. Des expériences d'inoculation de tubercules avec 10 espèces ou variétés fongiques et conservation en AC à 8 et 10°C ont montré que: 1) les champignons non pathogènes en atmosphère normale (ex.:Cylindrocarpon sp.) le devenaient en AC, 2) ceux qui étaient faiblement pathogènes en atmosphère normale étaient nettement plus virulents en AC (ex.:F. culmorum), 3) les espèces ou variétés virulentes en conditions d'air normales (Fusarium sulphureum etPhoma exigua var.foveata) ne provoquaient pas de pourriture plus grave en AC et leur activité pouvait même être légérement freinée.

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Summary The extensive rotting of tubers which occurred during storage trials in controlled atmospheres has led to a mycological and pathological study of the rots. The most frequently isolated species wasFusarium culmorum althoughF. avenaceum, F. Sambucinum, Coletotrichum coccodes and aCylindrocarpon sp. were also present. Tubers of cvs Bintje and Ulla were inoculated with 19 isolates of 10 fungal species or varieties associated with rotting of stored tubers (Table 1). The tubers were incubated at 8 or 10°C in normal or controlled (2% O₂:1% CO₂, 2% O₂:6% CO₂, 2% O₂:12% CO₂, 6% O₂:6% CO₂) atmospheres and the extent of rotting was determined a month later (Tables 2 and 3 and Fig. 2). Species which were weakly virulent in a normal atmosphere (variousFusarium spp. andPhoma exigua var.exigua) were clearly more aggressive in the controlled atmosphere and this was especially evident in the case ofF. culmorum. Species ot pathogenic in a normal atmosphere under experimental conditions (Colletotrichum coccodes, Cylindrocarpon sp.,Phoma eupyrena) caused rotting in the controlled atmosphere. The two species which were virulent in a normal atmosphere (F. sulphureum andP. exigua var.foveata) were also virulent in the controlled atmosphere and in some cases the extent of rotting was even less. As a general rule, rotting caused by weakly virulent fungi was greater in both cultivars in the controlled than in a normal atmosphere.

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Zusammenfassung Eine starke F?ulnis von in Kontrotrollierter Atmosph?re gelagerten Kartoffelknollen veranlasste eine mykologische und pathologische Untersuchung. Der am h?ufigsten isolierte Pilz warFusarium culmorum. F. avenaceum, F. sambucinum, Colletotrichum coccodes undCylindrocarpon sp. wurden ebenfalls bestimmt. Neunzehn St?mme von 10 Pilzsorten oder-Arten welche bei Lagerf?ulnis vorkommen (Tab. 1) wurden auf Knollen der Sorten Bintje und Ulla inokuliert. Die Lagerung wurde bei 8 oder 10°C under Normalbedingungen oder kontrollierter Atmosph?re durchgeführt (2% O₂:1% CO₂, 2% O₂:6% CO₂, 2% O₂:12% CO₂, 6% O₂:6% CO₂). Der F?ulnisgrad (Abb. 1) wurde nach einem Monat bonitiert. Die Ergebnisse sind in den Tabellen 2 und 3 dargestellt und in der Abb. 2 illustriert. Unter in Normalbedingungen nur schwach virulente Arten (verschiedeneFusarien undPhoma exigua var. exigua) waren deutlich aktiver in kontrollierter Atmosph?re. Dies was besonders der Fall fürF. culmorum. Pilze, die im Versuch unter Normalbedingungen nicht pathogen waren (Colletotrichum coccodes, Cylindrocarpon sp., Phoma eupyrena), haben unter kontrollierter Atmosph?re Sch?den verursacht. Hingegen werden die beiden unter Normalbedingungen sehr pathogenen Arten (F. sulphureum undP., exigua var.foveata), durch kontrollierte Atmosph?re wenig beeinflusst. Es wurde sogar in einigen F?llen eine gewisse Verringerung des F?ulnisbefalls beobachtet. Ganz allgemein haben die getesteten kontrollierten Bedingungen die Entwicklung der Pilzf?ulnis an beiden Kartoffelsorten gef?rdert, speziell durch Pilzarten, welche unter Normal-bedingungen wenig Sch?den verursachen.

     

Marine Pharmacology in 2016–2017: Marine Compounds with Antibacterial,Antidiabetic, Antifungal,Anti-Inflammatory,Antiprotozoal, Antituberculosis and Antiviral Activities; Affecting the Immune and Nervous Systems,and Other Miscellaneous Mechanisms of Action

The review of the 2016–2017 marine pharmacology literature was prepared in a manner similar as the 10 prior reviews of this series. Preclinical marine pharmacology research during 2016–2017 assessed 313 marine compounds with novel pharmacology reported by a growing number of investigators from 54 countries. The peer-reviewed literature reported antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis, and antiviral activities for 123 marine natural products, 111 marine compounds with antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory activities as well as affecting the immune and nervous system, while in contrast 79 marine compounds displayed miscellaneous mechanisms of action which upon further investigation may contribute to several pharmacological classes. Therefore, in 2016–2017, the preclinical marine natural product pharmacology pipeline generated both novel pharmacology as well as potentially new lead compounds for the growing clinical marine pharmaceutical pipeline, and thus sustained with its contributions the global research for novel and effective therapeutic strategies for multiple disease categories.     

Effects of Micronutrient Deficiencies on Human Health: Its Status in South Asia

SUMMARY

Vitamin A, iodine, and iron deficiencies affect large numbers of people worldwide. A deficiency of one or more of these micronutrients adversely affects the physical and mental abilities of humans. South Asia contains a high percentage of these individuals, not just because of its large population, but also the prevalence of deficiency is higher there than in many other parts of the world. The reasons for the high rates of deficiency in South Asia are many, but they include inadequate availability of micronutrient-rich foods, sub-optimal dietary habits, and high rates of infection. Across the region, national plans vary from (a) increasing availability of appropriate foods, (b) introducing new dietary behaviors, (c) improving health status, and (d) directly addressing deficiency through intervention programs. The extent to which each of the countries is making progress toward the goals of these plans can help in understanding the priorities for future efforts to address micronutrient malnutrition. This article discusses the adverse effects of micronutrient deficiencies in humans with special reference to South Asia.     

Management of Soil Micronutrient Deficiencies in the Rice-Wheat Cropping System

Summary

Within the last three decades, the rice-wheat cropping system has triggered, and with time, aggravated soil micronutrient deficiencies in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP). This has largely been due to the shift from an earlier rice and wheat monoculture with low yielding, long duration indigenous varieties, to an intensive rice-wheat rotation cropping system with short duration modern high yielding varieties on the same piece of land. The problems related to micronutrient deficiency in the IGP are more due to the size of its available pools in the soil rather than its total contents and are greatly influenced by crop management, or rather its mismanagement. Deficiency of zinc is widespread in the IGP, but with the extensive use of zinc sulfate, zinc deficiency has reduced in some areas of the region. Meanwhile, the deficiency of Fe, Mn and B has increased in the IGP. Deficiency of Cu and Mo is location specific and can limit rice and wheat yields. The adoption and spread of the rice-wheat system in permeable coarse textured soils, particularly in the western IGP, not only caused iron deficiency in rice but also resulted in the emergence of manganese deficiency in wheat. In highly calcareous and acidic soils, boron is the next limiting micronutrient in crop production after zinc. Bumper rice and wheat harvests in the past decade, the declining use of organic manures in the region and except for the widespread use of zinc sulfate, a general lack of awareness amongst farmers on micronutrient deficiency problems has contributed to micronutrients limiting rice and wheat yields in the IGP. Approaches to alleviating micronutrient deficiencies include matching the crop removals of the micronutrients with its replenishments through their respective external carriers, supplementation through organic sources and mobilization/utilization through cultivation of micronutrient efficient crop cultivars. Identification of efficient micronutrient carriers and finding the optimum rate, mode and time of its application is important in ameliorating the micronutrient deficiencies. This article reviews the extent of micronutrient deficiency and discusses various management options available to reduce micronutrient deficiency induced crop yield reduction for rice and wheat in the Indo-Gangetic Plains.     

Irrigation but not N fertilization enhances seedhead density in plains rough fescue ( F estuca hallii)

Plains rough fescue ( F estuca hallii) is an important forage grass species in western Canada. Seed for use in pastures and ecological restoration is in high demand but supply is limited because F. hallii is an erratic seed producer. Seed producers require an understanding of the factors that influence flowering and seed set in this species. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of irrigation and nitrogen fertilization on the flowering and growth of F. hallii in a native rough fescue prairie in Alberta, Canada. Irrigation had a strong positive effect on seedhead density, whereas fertilization had limited effects on growth and reproduction of F. hallii. These results demonstrate that under field conditions, available moisture is likely to be a key factor driving flowering and seed production in F. hallii.     

Marine Drugs Regulating Apoptosis Induced by Tumor Necrosis Factor-Related Apoptosis-Inducing Ligand (TRAIL)

Marine biomass diversity is a tremendous source of potential anticancer compounds. Several natural marine products have been described to restore tumor cell sensitivity to TNF-related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL)-induced cell death. TRAIL is involved during tumor immune surveillance. Its selectivity for cancer cells has attracted much attention in oncology. This review aims at discussing the main mechanisms by which TRAIL signaling is regulated and presenting how marine bioactive compounds have been found, so far, to overcome TRAIL resistance in tumor cells.     

Biochemical and morphological characterization of potato clones differing in their resistance to late blight

Summary Morphological and biochemical parameters that could be involved in resistance to late blight were studied in non-infected and in infected potato hybrids resulting from a cross betweenSolanum phureja, resistant toPhytophthora infestans, and a susceptibleSolanum tuberosum. Some morphological differences between resistant and susceptible hybrids, indicating a positive correlation between stem diameter and phloem thickness in the stem and resistance toP. infestans, were observed. The lignin content in the leaves of the resistant hybrid rose upon infection byP. infestans. In the leaves of the susceptible hybrid, a diminution of the lignin content could be observed upon infection byP. infestans. In the same context, peroxidasic activity raised upon infection byP. infestans in both resistant and susceptible hybrids. Further characterization of the hybrid clones based on the polymorphism of peroxidases was attempted using isoelectric focusing.     

Applied Biotechnology to Combat Late Blight in Potato Caused by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phytophthora Infestans</Emphasis>

Potato is an important crop, grown worldwide. It suffers from many pests and diseases among which late blight, caused by the oomycete Phytophthora infestans, is the worst. The disease is still causing major damage in many potato production areas and control is only possible by applying fungicides frequently. The knowledge on the molecular biology and genetics of the interaction between the plant and the oomycete is developing rapidly. These are relevant fields of study, currently dominated by the discovery of many resistance genes and numerous effector proteins and the analysis of their specific mode of action. These studies may yield essential information needed for the development of durable resistance. The long-term and worldwide effort to breed for resistance so far has had little effect. A novel breeding approach may change this. It is based on cisgenic modification (CM) consisting of marker-free pyramiding of several resistance genes and their spatial and temporal deployment yielding dynamic varieties that contain potato genes only. It is envisioned that this CM approach with potato’s own genes will not only prove societally acceptable but may also result in simplifications in the legislation on use of the CM approach. Various parties in the potato research arena intend to cooperate in this novel approach in a number of developing countries where potato substantially contributes to food security. The use of resources such as land, water and energy improves when the effect of late blight is markedly reduced.     

Resistance to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Potato virus Y</Emphasis> in a Multitrait Potato Breeding Scheme without Direct Selection in Each Generation

In an experimental breeding scheme to improve late blight (Phytophthora infestans) and white potato cyst nematode (Globodera pallida) resistance of tetraploid potato over three generations of crossing and selection, 15 clones survived the final selection, and these were derived from 15 great-grandparents. There was no direct selection for resistance to Potato virus Y (PVY), but 14 out of the 15 great-grandparents were resistant to PVY and three had extreme resistance. Thirteen of the 15 descendants had PVY resistance and one extreme resistance. This was within the range expected for a random (unselected) sample from the genotypes of the great-grandparents. Hence, we found no evidence for any positive or negative association between PVY resistance and the attributes selected. The conclusion is that laborious selection is not required in every generation when many parents have PVY resistance, including some with more than one copy of a PVY resistance gene or resistance at more than one locus. However, in the future, determining the major virus resistance genes present in potential parents in each generation using diagnostic molecular markers would prevent susceptible × susceptible crosses being made and maximise the number of resistant × resistant ones.