Causes for soil sickness affecting early plant growth in aerobic rice

In aerobic rice, adapted varieties are grown in non-flooded and non-saturated soil. In the Philippines, occasional poor crop growth and yield failures have been reported. To investigate the underlying causes, we conducted 3 pot experiments using the aerobic rice variety Apo and so-called “sick soil” from a field where aerobic rice failed in four successive dry seasons. The (experimental) aerobic rice crop replaced the farmer's practice of wet-season lowland rice and dry season sweet potato cropping. We hypothesized that abiotic factors, especially the inter-relationship between high soil pH and impaired micronutrient uptake, restrict plant growth, and that ammonium sulfate has an ameliorating effect. Experiment 1 used “sick soil” collected from around yellowing and dying plants in a field experiment with aerobic rice yield failure, and “healthy soil” collected from around well-growing plants in the same field. We used three N fertilizer treatments (ammonium sulfate, urea, no application) and two soil water conditions (well drained and water-logged). In experiment 2, the treatments were a combination of sick and healthy soil, N fertilizer, soil acidification, and foliar application of Fe. Experiment 3 compared the irrigation water used at the experimental field site with reverse-osmosis water. Irrigation with water from the field site increased soil pH, impaired plant growth, and induced chlorosis. The application of ammonium sulfate reduced soil pH to values below 6 and increased plant micronutrient (Fe, Mn and Zn) contents and plant growth. In early vegetative plant growth, the high soil pH appeared to be the key determinant of “sick soil”, while root knot nematodes were most likely secondary causes for poor plant growth.     

Synergic Effect of Flooding and Nitrogen Application on Alleviation of Soil Sickness Caused by Aerobic Rice Monocropping

Abstract

The “aerobic rice” system is the cultivation of high yielding rice cultivars under non-flooded conditions in non-puddled (aerobic) soil with supplemental irrigation. The major constraint in wide adoption of aerobic rice technology is soil sickness caused by continuous monocropping due to still unknown factors. The possible role of flooding and nitrogen application in alleviating the soil sickness caused by continuous monocropping of aerobic rice was examined by pot experiments. Plants were grown aerobically or anaerobically on the soil collected from a field grown with aerobic rice for 12 consecutive seasons. The results showed that flooding alleviated soil sickness, but not as much as soil oven-heating treatment (120ºC for 12 hr). Application of ammonium sulfate improved plant growth up to the level of oven-heating treatment, while ammonium sulfate application and flooding exceeded the soil oven-heating treatment significantly. The synergy of flooding with ammonium sulfate application was greater than that with urea. These results suggest that soil sickness caused by continuous aerobic monocropping can be alleviated by flooding and ammonium sulfate application.     

Effects of straw retention and phosphorous fertilizer application on available phosphorus content in the soil solution during rice growth

Phosphorus (P) is an essential nutrient for proper rice growth, and available P in the soil solution is a direct source of P for rice uptake. In this study, a field experiment (experiment A: straw retention (SRT) treatment versus straw removal (SRM) treatment) exposed to 3 years of continuous SRT and a pot experiment (experiment B: five P levels; SRT and SRM treatments) with different concentrations of applied P fertilizer were conducted to study the effects of SRT and P fertilizer application on the available P concentration in the soil solution during rice growth and on rice yield. SRT decreased the available P concentration in the soil solution, although it did not alter the trend of available P concentration in the soil solution during plant growth. In addition, in the 10–20-day period after transplantation, the available P concentration in the soil solution was high, although it decreased thereafter. The available P concentration in the soil solution increased with the amount of applied P fertilizer, and the rice yield also increased with increasing applications of P fertilizer. The results of experiments A and B showed that SRT had no significant impact on the rice yield; however, continuous observations over a number of years are required to verify the results.     

长期绿肥还田对江南稻田系统生产力及抗逆性的影响

 依据江南丘陵地区双季稻田28年（1981-2008年）长期绿肥还田的田间定位试验和4年的养分耗竭盆栽试验,分析比较了长期不同量绿肥还田对稻田系统生产力和抗逆性的综合影响。结果表明,常量绿肥还田和高量绿肥还田处理下,早稻、晚稻和历年的全年平均籽粒产量和生物学产量及其变异系数与长期单施化肥处理差异不显著,但由于绿肥还田处理施用绿肥替代部分化肥,平均每年的化肥N、P和K投入量比单施化肥处理分别减少90.0、9.9和72.0 kg/hm2。绿肥处理的双季稻全年产量呈上升趋势,而长期化肥处理则呈下降趋势,且前者的全年产量可持续性产量指数均略高于后者,常量绿肥还田下稻田系统的耐瘠能力也显著高于长期单施化肥处理。不同量绿肥还田下稻田系统生产力差异不显著,但耐瘠能力常量还田处理较高。     

Biotic and abiotic causes of yield failure in tropical aerobic rice

Aerobic rice is a new production system for water-short environments. Adapted varieties are usually direct dry seeded and the crop grown under aerobic soil conditions with supplementary irrigation as necessary. Occasionally, yield failures occur which may be related to soil health problems. In the dry season of 2006 and 2007, we conducted a field experiment in the Philippines, to identify the major causes of such yield failure. Four treatments were implemented: (i) Control of direct dry-seeded rice (improved upland variety Apo), (ii) Biocide application, (iii) transplanting into aerobic soil, and (iv) 1 year fallow. Yield in the Biocide treatment was 2 t ha⁻¹ in both years. In all other treatments, yield was 0–0.3 t ha⁻¹. Plants grown in the Biocide treatment showed a reduced degree of galling of roots caused by root-knot nematodes (RKN) and better general root health than the Control treatment. Potentially pathogenic fungi were isolated from root samples (Pythium sp., Fusarium sp., and a Rhizoctonia-like species). Abiotic effects of the Biocide treatment were an increase in KCl-extractable N (initial season 2007) and a decrease in initial soil pH. In the Control treatment, soil pH increased from 6.5 to 8.0 over the two seasons. In 2007, plant tissue analysis indicated Mn deficiency in the Control treatment. Plants that were subjected to foliar micronutrient sprays reacted positively to Fe and Mn sprays in the Control treatment, and Mn spray in the Biocide treatment. We concluded that the Biocide application led to favorable soil conditions by reducing biotic stresses such as RKN and improving nutrient availability. In the other treatments, an interaction of RKN and micronutrient deficiencies with increasing soil pH led to yield failure.     

大豆连作微量元素营养研究Ⅲ.连作对锰营养的影响

本文通过田间与盆栽对比试验及室内分析相结合的方法,研究了大豆连作胁迫下锰营养的变化特征。结果表明,不同生育时期中各连作年限土壤有效锰含量总体高于正茬,但连作大豆植株吸收积累锰却低于正茬,这种差异在盛花、结荚、鼓粒期表现明显。不同生育时期连作大豆植株锰营养与氮、磷营养相关极显著,分枝期植株锰营养与多酚氧化酶活性相关显著,盛花期、结荚期植株锰营养与产量相关显著。此外,本文还探讨了连作大豆土壤有效锰变化的原因。本研究为合理进行连作大豆锰营养调控,减轻连作障碍提供了科学依据。     

大豆连作微量元素营养研究：Ⅰ.连作对锌营养的影响

本文通过田间与盆栽对比试验及室内分析相结合的方法,研究了大豆连作胁迫下,土壤与植株锌营养变化特征。结果表明：不同生育期中各连作年限土壤有效锌总体高于正茬,但连作大豆植株吸收积累的锌却低于正茬,这种差异在大豆营养关键期“盛花－结荚－鼓粒期”表现极明显。     

浙江金华地区水稻土养分供应能力研究

 自1997年早稻开始，在浙江省金华市农业科学研究所试验区稻田设立了监测水稻土生产力及肥力变化的长期肥料定位试验，并在试验区周围10 km范围内选择了21户农民的稻田进行相应的监测试验。试验区内农户间稻田土壤的养分供应能力相差很大，氮供应能力变化于49~116 kg/hm2，磷供应能力变化于13~32 kg/hm2，钾供应能力变化于68~183 kg/hm2。农民常规施肥区的氮肥利用效率很低，氮表观回收率的平均值为14%~26%，氮肥农业效率平均值为4.6~8.2，且农户之间、早晚稻之间均存在较大差异。肥料定位试验结果表明，在连续种植水稻条件下，缺肥区土壤相应的有效养分消耗很快。与NPK全肥区比较，NP区从第2季水稻起，NK区从第3季水稻起，即开始出现减产。针对当地农民现行养分管理的实际情况，就水稻系统发展适地养分综合管理新技术进行了讨论。     

大豆连作微量元素营养研究Ⅱ.连作对钼营养的影响

本文通过田间与盆栽对比试验及室内分析相结合的方法,研究了大豆连作胁迫下钼营养的变化特征。结果表明：不同连作年限播前土壤有效钼的含量低于正茬。不同生育期各连作年限土壤有效钼的变化趋势和植株钼的积累特征与正茬相似,但含量低于正茬,且在盛花期土壤有效钼降到钼营养临界值（０．１ｍｇ／ｋｇ）附近,结荚期低于临界值。结荚期连作大豆土壤和植株钼营养与根瘤固氮、植株氮营养及产量间相关显著或极显著。上述结果说明,连作胁迫导致的钼营养亏缺可能是连作大豆产量降低的一个重要原因。此外,本文还探讨了连作大豆土壤有效钼降低的原因。     

Possible causes of yield failure in tropical aerobic rice

Aerobic rice is a water-saving rice production system for water-short environments with favorable soils and adapted, potentially high-yielding varieties that are direct dry seeded. Soils remain aerobic but supplementary irrigation is applied as necessary. In the dry season of 2004 and 2005, a water by N experiment was set up at the location “Dapdap” in central Central Luzon, Philippines, to explore water and N management strategies in aerobic rice. The experiment was laid out as a split-plot design on a loamy sand soil with three water treatments (irrigation twice per week, once per week, and once in two weeks with modifications) and 5 N levels (0–200 kg ha⁻¹). Average seasonal soil moisture tension ranged from 9.2 to 20 kPa but yield hardly responded to the treatment combinations and ranged from 0 to 2 t ha⁻¹. In addition to trial-specific parameters, root knot nematodes and micronutrients (2005) were monitored. Galling of roots due to nematodes was assessed through a rating scale of 0–5, with 0 = no galling and 5 = >75% of the root system galled. The degree of galling reached a level of 5 at flowering and harvest in 2004, and 3 at tillering and 4 at harvest in 2005. Results of a plant tissue analysis at mid-tillering for Fe, Mn, and Zn showed on average values above critical levels; individual replicates, however, indicated deficiencies for Mn. In addition to actual field observations, we used simulation modeling (ORYZA2000) as a tool to estimate attainable yield under actual water conditions and N inputs to explore how yield failure set in. Simulation results matched observed values for total above-ground biomass and leaf area index quite well when no N was applied. When high rates of N (200 and 165 kg ha⁻¹) were applied, simulated values matched actual field data only until about the panicle initiation stage; afterward, observed values remained below the simulation. We interpreted this as evidence that growth-limiting factors other than water or N affected the crop from this growth stage on. Observations made in the field on root knot nematodes and micronutrients suggested that these two factors, especially root knot nematodes, may have been major constraints to crop development in this experiment.     

Crop and water productivity as influenced by rice cultivation methods under organic and inorganic sources of nutrient supply

A field experiment was conducted during the wet seasons of 2010 and 2011 at New Delhi, India to study the influence of organic, inorganic, and integrated sources of nutrient supply under three methods of rice cultivation on rice yield and water productivity. The experiments were laid out in FRBD with nine treatment combinations. Treatment combinations included three sources of nutrient supply viz., organic, integrated nutrient management, and inorganic nutrition and three rice production systems viz., conventional transplanting, system of rice intensification (SRI) and aerobic rice system. Results indicated that the conventional and SRI showed at par grain and straw yields but their yields were significantly higher than aerobic rice. Grain yield under organic, inorganic and integrated sources of nutrient supply was at par since the base nutrient dose was same. Plant growth parameters like plant height, tillers, and dry matter accumulation at harvest stage were almost same under conventional and SRI but superior than aerobic rice system. Root knot nematode infestation was significantly higher in aerobic rice as compared to SRI and conventional rice. However, organic, inorganic and integrated sources of nutrient supply did not affect nematode infestation. There was significant advantage in term of water productivity under SRI over conventional transplanted (CT) rice and less quantity of water was utilized in SRI for production of each unit of grain. A water saving of 34.5–36.0 % in SRI and 28.9–32.1 % in aerobic rice was recorded as compared to CT rice.     

双季杂交稻耕作系统中养分与农药管理对土壤微生物活性的影响

 田间实验表明在不同的管理方式和不同生长期所研究的土壤参数均发生显著变化。土壤微生物生物量/磷脂含量随水稻生长期延长而显著减少，同时，单独施用肥料或农药和同时施用肥料和农药均导致土壤微生物生物量/磷脂含量发生一定变化，单独施用农药的土壤中土壤微生物生物量/磷脂含量最低。异养型细菌和蛋白质分解菌数量随水稻生长期延长持续减少，单独施用农药的土壤中异养型细菌和蛋白质分解菌数量最少，异养型细菌和蛋白质分解菌数量的变化趋势与土壤微生物生物量/磷脂含量相似。电子运输系统/脱氢酶活度随水稻生长期延长持续增强。与对照相比，单独施用肥料或同施农药和肥料导致土壤中电子运输系统活度增强，而单独施用农药土壤中电子运输系统活度明显下降。单独施用肥料或农药及同时施用肥料和农药处理中，土壤中蛋白质含量相对稳定，但在不同生长期存在较大变化。关键词     

Role of early vigor in adaptation of rice to water-saving aerobic culture: Effects of nitrogen utilization and leaf growth

Early vigor and rapid canopy development are important characteristics in aerobic rice culture, where they are highly susceptible to soil water deficits. To elucidate the response of rice's vegetative growth to water management regimes, we evaluated the leaf growth and the concomitant nitrogen (N) utilization of nine cultivars grown in flooded and aerobic culture in 2 years. In aerobic culture, the soil water potential at a depth of 20 cm frequently reached −60 kPa in 2007, but remained above −30 kPa in 2008. The average leaf area index (LAI) in the middle of the vegetative growth stage, N uptake and leaf N content per unit leaf area (specific leaf N; SLN) in aerobic culture were comparable to those in flooded culture. However, there was a significant cultivar × water regime interaction in LAI: cultivars with higher LAI during the vegetative growth stage achieved higher yield in aerobic rice culture. IR72 and Takanari (high-yielding cultivars of flood-irrigated rice) showed poor leaf growth as well as lower N uptake and higher SLN in aerobic culture compared with flooded culture. Our results show that early vigor is closely associated with yield stability to the soil moisture fluctuations in aerobic rice culture, even if weeds are properly controlled. Greater N uptake from aerobic soil and better balancing between the N demand for leaf growth and the N supply to the leaves under fluctuating soil moisture would be, at least in part, relevant to a rice cultivar's adaptation to aerobic conditions.     

油稻稻秸秆还田下氮肥运筹对双季稻产量及氮素吸收利用的影响

为明确油稻稻三熟制秸秆还田条件下双季水稻适宜的氮肥运筹方式,2018年在长江中游三熟制区(江西进贤)开展5个处理(秸秆不还田+氮肥3次施用、秸秆还田+氮肥3次施用、秸秆不还田+氮肥2次施用、秸秆还田+氮肥2次施用、秸秆还田+高量氮肥3次施用)的田间试验,探究该模式下氮肥运筹对双季稻产量与氮素吸收利用的影响。结果表明,在油稻稻三熟制下,秸秆还田和氮肥运筹对水稻产量的影响在早稻季和晚稻季均存在显著的互作效应,而水稻基肥中增施20%氮肥对产量的影响不明显,氮肥2次施用(后氮前移)即可实现水稻高产和稳产。秸秆还田并配合氮肥2次施用(后氮前移)可以满足水稻生育期氮素需求,从而保证水稻正常生长,氮素吸收量能够达到甚至优于3次施氮处理水平,并明显提高氮肥利用率,增加氮肥用量则不利于氮肥偏生产力的提高。     

生物炭对双季水稻产量、养分吸收和土壤性状的残留效应

生物炭对改良酸性土壤质量和提高作物产量具有重要作用。本研究以常规稻中嘉早17(早稻)和杂交稻五优308(晚稻)为供试品种,于2015年开始设置不施生物炭(C0)和一次性施用生物炭20 t/hm^2(C20)处理,以阐明施用生物炭3年后对双季稻产量、养分吸收和土壤性状的残留效应。结果表明,与C0处理相比,C20处理显著提高双季早稻产量,但对晚稻产量无显著影响;C20处理显著提高早、晚稻钾素吸收,对早稻氮素和磷素吸收有增加的趋势,但未达显著水平。试验进行4年后,C20处理显著提高土壤有机质含量和pH值。因此,在本试验中的酸性红壤上一次性施用生物炭后的第4年,生物炭仍然对双季水稻产量和土壤肥力具有提升效应。     

Combined Effects of Nutrient and Pesticide Management on Soil Microbial Activity in Hybrid Rice Double Annual Cropping System

Combined effects on soil microbial activity of nutrient and pesticide management in hybrid rice double annual cropping system were studied. Results of field experiment demonstrated significant changes in soil microbial biomass phospholipid contents, abundance of heterotrophic bacteria and proteolytic bacteria, electron transport system (ETS)/dehydrogenase activity, soil protein contents under different management practices and at various growth stages. Marked depletions in the soil microbial biomass phospholipid contents were found with the advancement of crop growth stages, while the incorporation of fertilizers and/or pesticides also induced slight changes, and the lowest microbial biomass phospholipid content was found with pesticides application alone. A decline in the bacterial abundance of heterotrophic bacteria and proteolytic bacteria was observed during the continuance of crop growth, while the lowest abundance of heterotrophic bacteria and proteolytic bacteria was found with pesticides application alone, which coincided with the decline of soil microbial biomass. A consistent increase in the electron transport system activity was measured during the different crop growth stages of rice. The use of fertilizers (NPK) alone or combined with pesticides increased it, while a decline was noticed with pesticides application alone as compared with the control. The soil protein content was found to be relatively stable with fertilizers and/or pesticides application at various growth stages in both crops undertaken, but notable changes were detected at different growth stages.     

Combined Effects of Nutrient and Pesticide Management on Soil Microbial Activity in Hybrid Rice Double Annual Cropping System

Combined effects on soil microbial activity of nutrient and pesticide management in hybrid rice double annual cropping system were studied. Results of field experiment demonstrated significant changes in soil microbial biomass phospholipid contents,abundance of heterotrophic bacteria and proteolytic bacteria, electron transport system (ETS)/dehydrogenase activity, soil protein contents under different management practices and at various growth stages. Marked depletions in the soil microbial biomass phospholipid contents were found with the advancement of crop growth stages, while the incorporation of fertilizers and/or pesticides also induced slight changes, and the lowest microbial biomass phospholipid content was found with pesticides application alone. A decline in the bacterial abundance of heterotrophic bacteria and proteolytic bacteria was observed during the continuance of crop growth, while the lowest abundance of heterotrophic bacteria and proteolytic bacteria was found with pesticides application alone, which coincided with the decline of soil microbial biomass. A consistent increase in the electron transport system activity was measured during the different crop growth stages of rice. The use of fertilizers (NPK) alone or combined with pesticides increased it, while a decline was noticed with pesticides application alone as compared with the control.The soil protein content was found to be relatively stable with fertilizers and/or pesticides application at various growth stages in both crops undertaken, but notable changes were detected at different growth stages.     

Influence of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Biochar on Floodwater pH and Yield Components of Rice Cultivated on Acid Sulphate Soil under Rice Intensification Practices

Abstract

Rice has a vital role in food security but the production is limited in infertile and degraded soils. Rice is cultivated on acid sulphate soil in the coastal area of Peninsular Malaysia. Soil amendment using biological charcoal (biochar) increases the soil fertility. Thus, empty fruit bunch biochar (EFBB) was applied in a pot experiment under a controlled environment using an organic system of rice intensification (SRI) practice and its effects on the floodwater pH, acid sulphate soil properties and growth performance of rice and yield of rice MR219 were preliminarily investigated. EFBB increased grain yield by 141 to 472%. Plant growth and yield parameters in EFBB amended soils were significantly higher than in soil without biochar. The number of tillers increased significantly with the increase in biochar applied; 28 tillers were produced in the control, while up to 80 tillers were produced in the plots applied 40 t ha^–1 EFBB. Moreover, the decline of Al³⁺ in flood water indicated that EFBB mitigated Al³⁺ toxicity. Soil water pH increased from 3.5 to 6 with increasing EFBB application rates. The grain yield was linearly correlated to the application rate of EFBB. This pot study demonstrates that the application of EFBB combined with organic fertilization and intermittent irrigation has the potential to improve rice yield on acid sulphate soil. Further study in the field is warranted to determine the effect of EFBB on large scale rice production.     

Application of Micronutrients in Rice-Wheat Cropping System of South Asia

Rice-wheat cropping system(RWCS) is one of the most important cropping systems in South Asia. However, sustainability of this system is under threat owing to several factors, of which deficiency of micronutrients particularly zinc(Zn), boron(B) and manganese(Mn) is one of the major problems. Continuous rotation of rice and wheat, imbalanced fertilizer use and little/no use of micronutrient-enriched fertilizers induce deficiencies of Zn, B and Mn in the RWCS of South Asia. Here we review that(i) imbalanced fertilizer use and organic matter depletion deteriorate soil structure resulting in low efficiency of applied macro-and micro-nutrients in RWCS.(ii) The micronutrients(Zn, B and Mn) are essentially involved in metabolism of rice and wheat plants, including chlorophyll synthesis, photosynthesis, enzyme activation and membrane integrity.(iii) Availability and uptake of Zn, B and Mn from rhizosphere depend on the physico-chemical soil properties(which differ under aerobic and anaerobic conditions) including soil p H, soil organic matter, soil moisture and interaction of these micronutrients with other nutrients.(iv) Plant ability to uptake and utilize the nutrients is affected by several plant factors such as root architecture, root hairs, transport kinetics parameter and root exudates.(v) Crop management and application of these microelements can help correct the micronutrients deficiency and enhance their grain concentration.     

不同施氮水平对金菠萝苗期生长及养分吸收的影响

氮素是影响植物生长和养分吸收的重要养分之一,为深入理解菠萝氮素营养生理,本研究以金菠萝为试验对象,通过盆栽试验研究不同施氮水平（0、25、50、100、150、300 mg/kg）对金菠萝苗期植株生长、叶绿素和类胡萝卜素含量以及养分吸收的影响。结果表明：随施氮水平增加,金菠萝植株的叶片数、地上部干重、根系干重和总干重都持续增加,在300 mg/kg时生长最好;D叶中叶绿素a、b和类胡萝卜素含量随施氮水平升高呈先升后降的趋势,在100 mg/kg时达到最大值;施氮水平增加提高了金菠萝植株N、P、K的吸收;随施氮水平升高,茎、叶中Ca、Mg、Mn、Cu、Zn含量上升,但茎、根中Fe含量下降,除Fe以外的中微量元素吸收量呈增加趋势。因此,本试验条件下,施氮水平增加促进了金菠萝苗期生长与养分吸收。