基于3S技术的地形起伏度与区域土壤侵蚀的相关性研究

地形起伏度直接影响着地面的径流变化,是导致土壤侵蚀的主要根源之一。分析两者相关性的前提是准确提取地形起伏度,而确定研究数据尺度下地形起伏度的最佳分析窗口是得出可靠结果的保障。在3S技术的支持下,运用均值变点法分析罗甸县基于DEM（空间分辨率为30 m×30 m）的最佳分析窗口,并依据2007年修正的土壤侵蚀分类分级标准估算研究区各样本单元的土壤侵蚀量,对两者进行相关性分析。结果表明:罗甸县在该尺度数据源下的最佳分析窗口为32×32,最佳统计面积为0.921 6 km²,实证了均值变点分析方法提取地形最佳分析窗口的可行性;地形起伏度与区域土壤侵蚀模数的相关系数为0.519 1,充分说明了作为宏观地形因子之一的地形起伏度是区域土壤侵蚀的主导因素之一。     

淮河流域土壤侵蚀与影响因子关系分析

为探究土壤侵蚀各影响因子在一个较大的地理系统内的组合变化关系,以淮河流域为研究区,通过收集流域内土壤、植被、地形、气候等数据,利用二元相关分析、偏相关分析和通径分析方法,对流域尺度的土壤侵蚀各影响因子进行了分析。结果表明:在流域尺度上,对土壤侵蚀起主导作用的因子是地形起伏度,其次是坡耕地面积比和植被覆盖度。地形起伏度和坡耕地面积比及植被覆盖度之间具有较好的相关性,地形起伏度除直接对土壤侵蚀产生影响外,还通过影响坡耕地的分布和植被覆盖度而对土壤侵蚀产生综合影响。     

土壤侵蚀危险性综合评判的物元模型

 基于对土壤侵蚀危险性的新理解,通过对影响因子进行全面的相关分析,采用降雨侵蚀力、地形起伏度、森林覆盖率、轻度以上侵蚀面积占总土地面积百分比、土壤可蚀性因子K、区域综合社会经济开发强度等6个指标,应用可拓工程方法和主成分分析方法,建立了福建省土壤侵蚀危险性综合评判的物元模型。评判结果为水土保持区划、水土保持规划,以及进一步确定重点治理区域、采取具体措施等提供了重要依据。     

贵州省乌江流域土壤侵蚀与地貌特征的关联分析

结合乌江流域2000年土壤侵蚀分布图和研究区30 m分辨率的ASTER GDEM数据,对乌江流域土壤侵蚀在海拔高度、坡度、地表起伏度和粗糙度方面的空间分布特征进行研究.结果表明,贵州省乌江流域土壤侵蚀主要为水力侵蚀,包括微度、轻度、中度、强度和极强度侵蚀5种类型,以微度和轻度侵蚀为主.乌江流域微度和轻度土壤侵蚀空间分布的高程特征呈现单峰现象,中度以上侵蚀的高程特征呈双峰现象.流域中度及中度以下土壤侵蚀空间分布的坡度特征为单调下降趋势,强度和极强度土壤侵蚀的面积比例随着坡度的增加呈现先增大后减小的趋势,15°左右存在一个侵蚀临界坡度.乌江流域的土壤侵蚀随地形起伏度的增加表现为先增加后减小的趋势,存在7～16 m临界起伏度;各类型土壤侵蚀随地表粗糙度的增加均呈减小趋势.喀斯特地区流域尺度侵蚀强度的变化受高程和坡度的影响较大,对地形起伏度和地表粗糙度的变化不敏感.     

大理河流域土壤侵蚀空间分布的地貌特征研究

以GIS为平台,结合第2次遥感调查黄土高原土壤侵蚀数据库,对大理河流域土壤侵蚀空间分布的地貌特征进行了研究。结果表明:水力侵蚀是大理河流域土壤侵蚀的主要形式。各种强度水力侵蚀空间分布的高程特征呈现峰值现象,其中强度以上水力侵蚀面积集中分布于1 240 m高程左右。各种强度水力侵蚀的面积比重,随着坡度的增加呈现先增大后减小的趋势,25°左右存在一个侵蚀临界坡度。临界坡度值随着侵蚀强度的增强而增大。坡向特征呈现双峰现象,其中东北与西南坡向是大理河流域的优势坡向,强度以上水力侵蚀在东北坡向的分布比重大于西南坡向。大理河流域土壤侵蚀存在一个30 m左右临界起伏度。土壤侵蚀强度的变化对起伏度的变化不敏感。此结论为进一步研究流域水土流失动态模拟与区域生态环境长期演变提供了新思路和新角度。     

利用CSLE模型的东北漫川漫岗区土壤侵蚀评价

东北黑土区是中国重要的商品粮基地,土壤侵蚀正日益破坏着宝贵的黑土资源,严重威胁到中国粮食生产安全。土壤侵蚀评价是土壤侵蚀防治的依据和水土保持效益评估的重要途径。土壤侵蚀的多尺度特征及其影响因素的复杂性对土壤侵蚀评价提出更高的要求。为探讨土地利用和地形对土壤侵蚀的影响,以及更好地呈现土壤侵蚀评价的结果,该研究以位于东北漫川漫岗区的拜泉县为例,运用中国土壤流失方程(Chinese Soil Loss Equation,CSLE)定量评价了拜泉县的土壤侵蚀状况,分析了土地利用和地形因素对土壤侵蚀的影响,并提出了实现区域土壤侵蚀评价"落地"的方案。结果表明:拜泉县平均土壤侵蚀模数为6.77 t/(hm~2·a),土壤侵蚀面积比例为39.35%,极强烈和剧烈侵蚀的高侵蚀主要分布于拜泉县的东南部丘陵区和西北部的漫川漫岗区。坡度越大,土壤侵蚀模数越高。但随着坡长的变长,土壤侵蚀模数呈现出先增大后减小的变化趋势。对侵蚀量的贡献,来源于1～2°的坡度范围侵蚀量最大,其次为3～5°和2～3°。100～200 m的坡长对侵蚀的贡献最大,其次为200～400 m和50～100 m的坡长。坡耕地应该是土壤侵蚀防治的重点区域。在小流域的尺度上,选取土壤侵蚀面积比例进行土壤侵蚀评价,可以更好地服务于区域水土保持规划,是实现区域土壤侵蚀评价"落地"的有效途径。     

基于变点分析法提取废弃采石场地形起伏度的方法

地形起伏度是废弃采石场水土保持治理和生态重建的重要地形指标之一。以0.5m,0.7m,1m,1.5m等12种不同水平分辨率DEM为数据源,采用GIS的窗口递增分析法和均值变点分析法对12种不同分辨率DEM的地形起伏度的最佳分析窗口进行了分析。结果表明:12种不同分辨率的最佳分析窗口都是为9×9网格,相应地提取地形起伏度的最佳统计面积与其相应的水平分辨率关系比较密切,呈幂函数的关系。以0.5m水平分辨率的DEM数据提取地形起伏度的最佳分析窗口面积为20.25m~2,并计算出大于5m地形起伏度的区域占总面积的13.12%。均值变点分析法确定地形起伏度也同样适用于废弃采石场的地形分析。     

河北省阜平县农村居民点地形分异特征研究

为探究太行山深山区农村居民点的地形分异特征,以河北省阜平县为例,选取了高程、坡度、坡向、地形起伏度、平面变率、剖面变率6个地形因子,通过区位熵指数反映农村居民点空间分布的优势地形位,运用洛伦兹曲线和基尼系数反映各地形因素不同分级梯度上居民点空间分布的集中程度,采用信息熵进一步分析农村居民点在各地形因素上的有序程度。结果表明:海拔高度在100～300 m以及300～500 m,坡度为0°~2°、2°~6°和6°~15°,坡向在平面、东北、东、东南和南向,地形起伏度在0～30 m,平面变率在20°以上,剖面变率在0°~5°内的区域为农村居民点在各地形因子上的优势地形位;平面变率各分级梯度上农村居民点的空间布局属于绝对均匀型,坡向、地形起伏度和剖面变率属于比较均匀型,而在坡度和高程上则属于分布悬殊型;农村居民点在地形起伏度、高程和坡度上的分布较为有序;优劣势地形位越明显的地形因素上,农村居民点的空间分布越集中,有序度也越高。从区位特征及内在结构进行定性和定量分析,可为山区农村居民点的布局优化提供科学决策。     

基于DEM和均值变点法的措勤县地形起伏度分析

地形起伏度能够反映特定区域的地势起伏特征，采用均值变点法可以有效确定地形起伏度的最佳分析窗口。利用措勤县ASTER GDEM 30 m分辨率高程数据，在GIS平台支持下，通过Python编程，采用邻域分析法在不同窗口大小下提取地形起伏度，运用均值变点法确定措勤县最佳分析窗口。研究表明：(1)措勤县最佳分析窗口为27×27的矩形单元，分析窗口面积为0.656 1 km²。(2)措勤县地形起伏度范围为0～688 m,将其分为5类，起伏度值为70～200 m的丘陵地形和200～500 m的小起伏山地地形为措勤县主要地形，占比分别为37.62%和33.24%;起伏度值为30～70 m的台地地形和0～30 m的小起伏平地地形，占比分别为16.22%和12.57%;地形起伏度值为500 m以上的中起伏山地地形面积最小，占比为0.35%。     

基于DEM的地形起伏度算法的比较研究

地形起伏度是描述宏观地形变化状况的地形因子,可作为区域水土流失评价的地形指标之一。基于全国1000 m分辨率DEM分别选取黄土高原、四川盆地、横断山区、东南丘陵、山东丘陵、东北地区6个典型样区,采用局地高差法、局地标准差、表面积与投影面积比、RUGN法、矢量法、RDLS(地表起伏度)6种算法进行起伏度的提取,对提取结果进行了对比分析,并对各种算法的提取结果进行了信息容量计算。结果表明,局地标准差和局地高差法是两种相对较好的提取起伏度的方法,且针对不同的地形区,不同起伏度算法也具有各自的适宜性。     

低氮和干旱胁迫对富士和秦冠生长及氮素利用的影响

【目的】以富士（Fuji）、 秦冠（Qinguan）嫁接在平邑甜茶（Malus hupehensis Rehd.）上的当年生盆栽苗为试验材料,采用砂培方法,研究了缺氮胁迫和干旱对富士和秦冠生长情况、 光合参数、 植株各部位氮磷钾含量及氮素利用效率的影响,分析比较了低氮干旱条件下富士和秦冠生长及氮素利用的差异,以期为果树生产高效肥水利用提供理论指导。【方法】试验共设四个处理: 正常氮正常水（ZZ）、 低氮正常水（DZ）、 正常氮干旱（ZG）、 低氮干旱（DG）。氮素和水分均设置两个水平,分别为正常氮（6 mmol/L NO-3-N）、 低氮（0.3 mmol/LNO-3-N）、 正常供水（保持盆中砂子相对含水量为饱和含水量的80%~85%）、 干旱处理（保持盆中砂子相对含水量为饱和含水量的60%~65%）。【结果】富士和秦冠的生物量（茎和叶）、 株高茎粗等生长指标以及光合速率、 气孔导度、 蒸腾速率均为正常氮正常水（ZZ）＞低氮正常水（DZ）＞正常氮干旱（ZG）＞低氮干旱（DG）,并且相对应处理下秦冠的以上指标均高于富士;正常供水下,缺氮处理使富士、 秦冠的根冠比比正常氮处理均有所增加,富士提高了2.05%,秦冠提高了22.40%。富士和秦冠的氮、 磷、 钾含量均表现出正常氮正常水（ZZ）＞低氮正常水（DZ）＞正常氮干旱（ZG）＞低氮干旱（DG）; 氮、 钾元素含量在植株各部位的分布顺序依次是叶＞根＞茎,磷元素则是根＞叶＞茎;光合氮素利用效率（PNUE）和氮素利用效率表现为秦冠处理之间差异极显著,富士处理之间差异不显著;秦冠的PNUE和NUE明显高于富士,在低氮正常水（DZ）处理下,秦冠氮肥利用率比富士高42.07%,在低氮干旱（DG）处理下高64.14%;低氮胁迫下富士和秦冠的NUE显著提高,并且秦冠提高的幅度高于富士。【结论】施用氮肥能够显著提高富士与秦冠的干物质量,同等水肥条件下,秦冠生长优于富士;水分亏缺会减少叶片对氮的吸收,干旱条件下适度增施氮肥,可提高果树的抗旱能力;低氮干旱胁迫下秦冠的生长指标、 光合指标及氮素利用效率指标均优于富士,表现出较强的抗低氮干旱胁迫的能力。     

Pasture Vegetation Elemental Analysis by Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is a new technique for the analysis of plant material. This study investigates the application of LIBS to pasture-based plant samples. The LIBS measurements were obtained from pelletized pasture samples (100 samples) that had been also analyzed by inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) following microwave digestion for calibration and comparison purposes. Comparisons for elements sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), boron (B), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S) showed that LIBS could be used for almost all the standard profile total elements with concentrations down to low mg/kg levels (observed error of Na: 0.024 percent, K: 0.18 percent, Mg: 0.016 percent, Ca: 0.073 percent, P: 0.017 percent, Mn: 31 mg/kg, Fe: 150 mg/kg, Zn: 6.6 mg/kg, and B: 1.1 mg/kg). Elemental analysis at less than mg/kg levels was not possible using LIBS. The elements S and Cu were particularly difficult to analyze with reliability using LIBS at the concentration levels found in the plant samples. Replacing microwave digestion and subsequent ICP analysis with a direct analysis of dried plant samples using LIBS has the potential to improve the productivity and reduce the cost of testing.     

Faculty positions:Center for Agricultural Resources Research,Chinese Academy of Sciences

正The Center for Agricultural Resources Research(CARR),the Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology(IGDB),Chinese Academy of Sciences,invites applicants for several research group leader positions.CARR is one of the research organizations in Chinese Academy of Sciences(CAS).We seek nominations and applications from individuals who have expertise and a record of accomplishment in research areas related to ecology,agro-hydrology,     

Macroinvertebrates in North American tallgrass prairie soils: effects of fire, mowing, and fertilization on density and biomass

The responses of tallgrass prairie plant communities and ecosystem processes to fire and grazing are well characterized. However, responses of invertebrate consumer groups, and particularly soil-dwelling organisms, to these disturbances are not well known. At Konza Prairie Biological Station, we sampled soil macroinvertebrates in 1994 and 1999 as part of a long-term experiment designed to examine the effects and interactions of annual fire, mowing, and fertilization (N and P) on prairie soil communities and processes. For nearly all taxa, in both years, responses were characterized by significant treatment interactions, but some general patterns were evident. Introduced European earthworms (Aporrectodea spp. and Octolasion spp.) were most abundant in plots where fire was excluded, and the proportion of the total earthworm community consisting of introduced earthworms was greater in unburned, unmowed, and fertilized plots. Nymphs of two Cicada genera were collected (Cicadetta spp. and Tibicen spp.). Cicadetta nymphs were more abundant in burned plots, but mowing reduced their abundance. Tibicen nymphs were collected almost exclusively from unburned plots. Treatment effects on herbivorous beetle larvae (Scarabaeidae, Elateridae, and Curculionidae) were variable, but nutrient additions (N or P) usually resulted in greater densities, whereas mowing usually resulted in lower densities. Our results suggest that departures from historical disturbance regimes (i.e. frequent fire and grazing) may render soils more susceptible to increased numbers of European earthworms, and that interactions between fire, aboveground biomass removal, and vegetation responses affect the structure and composition of invertebrate communities in tallgrass prairie soils.     

Assessing the effectiveness of conservation measures: Resolving the “wicked” problem of the Steller sea lion

“Wicked” problems are those that are complex and that change when solutions are applied. Many conflicts in conservation fall into this category. The study approached the problem of how to constrain the apparent wickedness of a problem in the conservation management of a species by using simple empirical indicators to carry out iterative assessment of the risk to a population and to document how this risk evolves in relation to the addition of new data and the implementation of management actions. Effects of high levels of uncertainty within data and also concerning population structure were examined through stochastic simulation and by exploration of scenarios. Historical trends in the example used, the Steller sea lion, showed rapid declines in abundance in some regions during the 1980s. The current total population is 130,000-150,000 Steller sea lions through Alaska and British Columbia and this number has been stable since about 1990 in spite of regional differences in population dynamics. Regional differences in the sequence of changes in the number of pups and non-pups, suggested that an internal re-distribution of juveniles could have happened between 1980 and 1990. Current productivity also appears close to the long-term mean. Stochastic population projection using various scenarios showed that, based upon this history, the risk of extinction for the population has declined and is below reasonable thresholds for considering the population to be endangered. The trends in risk suggest that management actions taken since 1990 have probably been effective. Consequently, the conservation management objectives for the Steller sea lion are probably being met. The approach provides a mechanism, based upon experience and scenario analysis, for exploring future policy options and may help to constrain the debate amongst stakeholders about the cost-benefit trade-offs associated with different options.     

Soil-profile distribution of primary and secondary plant-available nutrients under conventional and no tillage

Nutrient distributions under no tillage (NT) compared with conventional disk-and-bed tillage (CT) management in the warm, humid region of the southeastern USA need to be assessed so that future placement, quantity, and type of fertilizers can be altered, if necessary, to efficiently match crop demands. We determined soil-profile distributions of pH, N, P, S, K, Ca, Mg, Na, Zn, Fe, Mn, and Cu to a depth of 0.9 m at the end of 8.5 years of continuous CT and NT management on a Weswood silty clay loam (fine, mixed, thermic Fluventic Ustochrept) in southcentral Texas. Most dramatic changes occurred within the 0–0.05 m depth, where soil under NT had lower pH, Fe, and Cu than under CT, but greater P, K, Zn, and Mn. Greater P and K under NT than under CT also occurred below the till-zone (0.15–0.3 m). At a depth of 0–0.3 m, soil under NT contained greater amounts of extractable P, K, Zn, Fe, Mn, and Cu than under CT. Nitrogen fertilization had little effect on nutrient distributions, except resulting in greater extractable K at 0–0.05 m and greater nitrate at 0–0.15 m. Few changes in soil-profile distributions were observed for extractable S, Ca, Mg, and Na. Long-term continuous use of NT on this fine-textured, high-fertility (except for N) soil had no apparent adverse effects on nutrient distributions relative to CT, but enhanced conservation and availability of P, K, Zn, Fe, Mn, and Cu near the soil surface where crop roots proliferate.     

Variation in quality parameters between and within 14 Nordic tree fruit and berry species

Abstract

A 3-year study was carried out to investigate quality parameters in 14 tree fruit and berry species grown in southern Norway. The species were blueberry, apple, aronia, sour cherry, sweet cherry, red raspberry, strawberry, blackcurrant, gooseberry, red currant and elderberry, harvested along with wild bilberry, cloudberry and lingonberry. Significant differences between species were identified for all quality parameters. The coefficient of variation between species was lowest for pH (12.5%), dry matter (18.9%) and soluble solids (25.3%), followed by titratable acids (59.3%), total phenolics (83.8%), antioxidant capacity FRAP (85.7%) and antiradical power by the DPPH-assay (97.8%), total monomeric anthocyanins (132%) and ascorbic acid (137%). Average coefficient of variation within species were lower and ranged from 4 (pH) to 62% (ascorbic acid). Only the FRAP values were significantly affected by harvesting year with lower levels in 2004 than in 2005 and 2006. There were significant interactions between species and harvesting year for dry matter, soluble solids, pH, ascorbic acid and FRAP. The results indicate generic ranges in composition within species independent upon growing location and climate, and the composition of the tree fruits and berries is not likely to deviate from these ranges. It is concluded that desirable composition of tree fruits and berries and their products should primarily be achieved by selection among species rather than searching fors broadened variation within individual species.     

Potassium Fixation and Release Characteristics in Rhizosphere and Nonrhizosphere Soils for a Rapeseed–Rice Cropping Sequence

Potassium (K) fixation and release in soil are important factors in the long-term sustainability of a cropping system. Changes in K concentration and characteristics of K fixation and release in rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere soils in the rapeseed (Brassica napus L.)–rice (Oryza sativa L.) rotation were investigated using a rhizobox system. The concentrations of different forms of K in both rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere soils decreased with plants compared to without plants, regardless of K fertilizer application. Potassium uptake by crops mainly came from the rhizosphere soil. In the treatment without K fertilizer (–K), the main form of K supplied by the soil to the crops was 1.0 mol L^?1 nitric acid (HNO₃) nonextractable K, followed by nonexchangeable K, and then exchangeable K. In the treatment with K fertilizer (+K), the main K forms supplied by the soil to the crops were exchangeable K and nonexchangeable K. The amount and rate of K fixation after one cycle of the rapeseed–rice rotation was greater in rhizosphere soil than in nonrhizosphere soil. The amount and rate of K fixation of soil in the +K treatment were significantly less than in the –K treatment. The cumulative amounts of K released with 1.0 mol L^?1 ammonium acetate (NH₄OAc) and 1.0 mol L^?1 HNO₃ extraction increased with the increasing numbers of extractions, but the K-releasing power of soil by successive extraction decreased gradually and finally became almost constant. The release of K was less in rhizosphere soil than in nonrhizosphere soil. The release of K in the +K treatment was similar to that in the –K treatment in rhizosphere soil, but the K release in nonrhizosphere soil was greater with the +K than the –K treatment. Overall, the information obtained in this study will be helpful in formulating more precise K fertilizer recommendations for certain soils.     

Electron donor and pH relationships for biologically enhanced dissolution of chlorinated solvent DNAPL in groundwater

Biologically enhanced dissolution offers a method to speed removal of chlorinated solvent dense non-aqueous-phase liquid (DNAPL) sources such as tetrachloroethene (PCE) and trichoroethene (TCE) from aquifers. Bioremediation is accomplished by adding an electron donor to the source zone where fermentation to intermediates leading to acetic acid and hydrogen results. The hydrogen and possibly acetic acid are used by dehalogenating bacteria to convert PCE and TCE to ethene and hydrochloric acid. Reductive dehalogenation is thus an acid forming process, and sufficient alkalinity must be present to maintain a near neutral pH. The bicarbonate alkalinity required to maintain pH above 6.5 is a function of the electron donor: 800 mg/L of bicarbonate alkalinity is sufficient to achieve about 1.2 mM TCE dechlorination with glucose, 1.7 mM with lactate, and a much higher 3.3 mM with formate. Laboratory studies indicate that in mixed culture, formate can be used as an electron donor for complete conversion to ethene, contrary to pure cultures studies indicating it cannot. Various strategies can be used to add electron donor to an aquifer for DNAPL dehalogenation while minimizing pH problems and excessive electron donor usage, including use of injection-extraction wells, dual recirculation wells, and nested injection-extraction wells.     

Enhanced establishment and growth of giant cardon cactus in an eroded field in the Sonoran Desert using native legume trees as nurse plants aided by plant growth-promoting microorganisms and compost

To evaluate the feasibility of long-term desert reforestation technology of mixed vegetation, cardon cactus (Pachycereus pringlei) seedlings from indoor and outdoor nurseries were planted in the field adjacent to one seedling of potential legume nurse trees: mesquite amargo (Prosopis articulata), yellow palo verde (Parkinsonia microphylla), and blue palo verde (Parkinsonia florida). Some of the planting holes were also supplemented with common dairy compost. Additionally, the combinations of legume tree–cactus were inoculated with either a consortium of desert arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB; the diazotroph Azospirillum brasilense Cd, and the phosphate solubilizer Paenibacillus sp.), or a mixture of all. The field experiments were evaluated periodically during 30 months for survival and growth. Cardons reared in an outdoor screen house survived better in the field than those reared in a controlled growth chamber and hardened later outdoors. Association with any legume nurse tree increased survival and enhanced growth of untreated cardons. For cardons growing alone, application of either compost, AM fungi, and all the treatments combined increased survival. For these plants, no treatment affected plant growth during the first 3 months after transplanting. Later, all treatments, except for AM fungi, enhanced plant growth. However, only 2 years after transplanting the enhanced growth effect of AM fungi was also significant. In the presence of the legume nurse trees, transient positive effects on cardon growth were recorded. General evaluation after 30 months of cultivation showed that the treatments positively affected cardon growth when growing alone or in combination only with mesquite amargo but not with the other two legume trees. This study proposes that young legume trees have the capacity to enhance survival and growth of cardon cactus, depending on the legume cactus combination. Additional treatments such as compost or PGPB can either amplify the effect or else attenuate it.