基于自然灾害风险理论的东北地区玉米干旱、冷害风险评价

为了分析干旱、冷害灾害对农作物生长的综合影响,全面评价其综合风险,该文利用东北地区35个农业气象站1961-2010年气象资料、1981-2010年玉米发育期资料、1961-2010年产量面积资料、近50 a东北三省的灾情资料以及近10 a东北三省各县的社会经济统计资料,以玉米出苗—抽雄、抽雄—成熟2个生长阶段发生的干旱及冷害为研究对象,基于水分亏缺指数和热量指数分别建立了干旱指标和冷害指标,对东北地区玉米干旱、冷害进行风险分析。建立了包括危险性、脆弱性、暴露性和防灾减灾能力4个方面的东北地区玉米干旱、冷害风险评价模型,指出危险性和防灾减灾能力是风险评价模型中最重要的两个影响因子。研究结果为,东北地区玉米干旱、冷害高风险值区位于黑龙江西南部和东北部,以及辽宁西部建平县一带,风险指标值在0.8以上;吉林西北部、东南部、辽宁东北部为次高值区,风险指标值在0.6~0.7之间;低值区位于辽宁中南部及辽东半岛,风险值在0.3左右。研究结果可为东北地区防灾减灾工作提供客观依据。     

辽西北玉米干旱脆弱性评价模型构建与区划研究

本文基于IPCC(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)报告中对气候变化背景下脆弱性的定义,从暴露程度、敏感性、自身恢复能力和环境适应能力4个方面建立了干旱灾害脆弱性评价模型。以辽西北地区的玉米干旱灾害作为研究对象,根据干旱灾害脆弱评价模型选取了气象因子、玉米生理因子以及经济社会因子等17项指标,运用熵权法、加权综合评价法计算得到了辽西北地区玉米干旱脆弱性指数。为了验证和检验模型的适用性,选取了辽西北1999年、2000年、2001年和2006年4个典型干旱年份,将玉米干旱脆弱性指数划分为5个等级,借助GIS技术绘制了玉米干旱脆弱性区划图。结果表明:辽西北玉米干旱脆弱性强的区域主要集中在西部地区的阜新、朝阳、葫芦岛一带。重度以上脆弱性区域范围比例表现为2006年>1999年>2001年>2000年的规律;其中,2006年脆弱性最强,影响面积最广,造成的损失也最严重,与实际灾情变化规律一致。分析2006年的玉米干旱脆弱性,多数区域是由玉米生长季的降水异常引起的。通过对4个典型干旱年份的玉米干旱脆弱性指数与玉米减产率进行回归分析,发现二者之间基本吻合,通过了α=0.05的显著性F检验,说明利用该模型对玉米干旱脆弱性的评价与区划是合理的,可以用来评价和预测玉米干旱脆弱性、干旱灾害风险以及因干旱造成的玉米产量损失。研究结果可为当地农业干旱灾害风险评估和预警提供依据。     

河南省县域单元自然灾害社会脆弱性评价

评价社会脆弱性对于分析自然灾害对人类经济社会的潜在风险具有重要意义。从人口、经济、基础设施脆弱性和防灾减灾能力四个方面选取了12个评价指标,并运用专家调查法结合层次分析法确定指标权重,建立数学评价模型,对河南省县域单元自然灾害社会脆弱性进行综合分析。结果表明:河南省东部地区自然灾害人口脆弱性和经济脆弱性普遍高于西部地区,基础设施脆弱性较高的地区则主要分布于西北部;防灾减灾能力西北部整体较高,东部和南部较低,各地级市辖区防灾减灾能力明显高于一般县域;自然灾害社会脆弱性大致上呈现以"东北—西南"一线较高,两侧县域社会脆弱性等级较低的空间分布格局。研究结果可为河南省进行自然灾害风险管理和防灾减灾规划提供科学依据。     

基于作物生育期灾害敏感指数的旱灾粮食减产量研究

我国是自然灾害频繁发生的国家,自然灾害造成不同程度的粮食减产,是粮食安全的潜在风险源。该文以旱灾为主,将全国各地区作物生育期、不同旱灾强度、发生时间及发生次数进行耦合分析,研究其耦合规律及主要粮食作物在各生育期对灾害的敏感性,并据此计算我国不同地区旱灾减产量并进行风险评价分析。研究表明,冬小麦的返青、乳熟和成熟期,春小麦的分蘖、乳熟和成熟期,玉米的三叶、七叶和成熟期以及水稻的返青、孕穗、乳熟和成熟期均是防灾减灾的关键期,应该加强农田管理,减少灾害损失。旱灾对我国粮食主产区影响较大,粮食减产风险防范关键区主要分布在黄淮海区、长江中下游区。     

海南岛农业台风灾害风险评估与可持续发展对策

海南岛是中国台风频发地区之一，开展海南岛农业台风灾害风险评估研究，可为海南岛优化农业种植布局和加强农业防灾减灾提供技术支撑。该研究基于自然灾害系统理论和方法，结合海南岛气象、自然地理与社会经济等要素，综合考虑致灾因子危险性、孕灾环境暴露性、承灾体脆弱性，研究构建了海南岛农业台风灾害风险评估方法与指标体系，并基于2001－2020年历年海南岛台风发生数据进行了海南岛农业台风灾害风险评估，在此基础上提出了农业台风灾害防灾减灾与可持续发展对策。结果表明，海南岛农业台风灾害风险指数处于0.40～0.80之间，平均0.61，整体上呈现出北部及沿海地区的灾害风险高于中部山区的趋势；致灾因子危险性、孕灾环境暴露性在全岛北部和沿海地区指数较高，承灾体脆弱性在琼海、陵水和三亚等市县指数较高。同时提出了3种农业台风防灾减灾与可持续发展对策，包括调整农业种植布局、提升风险监测预警能力和加强农业政策保险投入等。海南岛各市县农业台风灾害风险的差异以及相应的对策，可支撑相关部门为不同灾害风险程度区域建立防灾方法提供指导依据。     

近60年东北地区春玉米旱涝趋势演变研究

区域作物旱涝趋势的演变是区域应对气候变化、制定防灾减灾决策的理论依据,是保证我国粮食安全的基础。本文以东北地区为研究区,依据春玉米的生长特征将其划分为14个分区,利用研究区1958—2017年78个站点的逐日气象数据,计算春玉米生育期内的累积水分盈亏指数(CWSDI?),并将其划分为8个旱涝等级,结合M-K趋势检验和突变检验法及GIS空间分析技术,揭示了东北地区春玉米生长期旱涝趋势的时空演变规律。结果表明:在春玉米生育期内,播种—抽穗期的3个生育阶段, CWSDI?值大体呈上升趋势,抽穗—成熟期CWSDI?值呈下降趋势,其中乳熟—成熟阶段的下降趋势最重,但无明显区域性。研究区内春玉米干旱的发生频率远高于洪涝的发生频率,干旱自20世纪90年代逐渐加重,洪涝情况无明显变化趋势;拔节—抽穗阶段和乳熟—成熟阶段分别是旱涝灾害最轻和最重的阶段,春玉米各生育阶段各旱涝等级的发生频率大体上是特旱轻旱其余旱涝等级;吉林省西部和辽宁省西部的中旱及重旱频率高于其他地区,特旱主要集中在研究区西部,轻涝集中在黑龙江省中、南部,吉林省东部和辽宁省东部,研究区内几乎不发生中、重涝。应在春玉米的生育初期和后期注意旱涝灾害的预防,研究区西部的旱情较重应重点防范,做到适时有效灌溉。研究结果可为区域预测农业旱涝灾害、优化水资源配置提供决策依据。     

基于GIS和FloodArea水动力模型的重庆市山洪灾害风险区划

[目的]开展重庆市山洪灾害风险评估与区划,为该地区山洪防灾减灾提供相应参考。[方法]依据自然灾害风险评估理论,从致灾因子危险性、孕灾环境脆弱性、承灾体暴露性、防灾减灾能力4个方面选取指标,构建重庆市山洪灾害风险评估模型。结合相关气象、生态和社会经济数据,运用GIS空间数据分析完成重庆市山洪灾害风险区划。[结果]重庆市山洪灾害致灾因子危险性在合川和江津大部地区为高风险区,孕灾环境高脆弱区主要位于长江、嘉陵江沿江河谷地带,承灾体暴露性在重庆市主城区、南川、武隆、涪陵、城口为高暴露区,重庆东北部和东南部大部地区为低防灾减灾能力区。[结论]总体评估而言,重庆市山洪灾害风险的高风险区主要位于重庆东北部的巫溪、东南部的酉阳和彭水、西南部的江津和西北部的合川。     

基于作物水分亏缺指数的黄淮海平原夏玉米全生育期干旱分布特征

黄淮海地区是夏玉米主产区,又是受旱最严重的地区之一,明确该区域干旱发生规律,采取相应防灾减灾措施对粮食保产具有重要意义。利用黄淮海地区1981−2015年76个气象站点数据,以作物水分亏缺指数（CWDI）作为干旱指标,根据《北方夏玉米干旱等级》标准对各区域进行干旱等级划分,并计算干旱发生频率和影响范围,通过ArcGIS实现站点数据的空间插值,分析该区域夏玉米干旱时空演变规律。结果表明：（1）1981−2015年夏玉米各生育期内CWDI总体表现为先下降后上升的趋势,播种−出苗期和抽雄−乳熟期干旱发生频率最高,2011−2015年夏玉米干旱有加重趋势,其中河北南部、河南北部及山东夏玉米生育期内CWDI值最高;（2）黄淮海地区夏玉米生长季以轻旱为主,其次是中旱,重旱和特旱发生频率较低,研究区域干旱发生频率北部高于南部,西部高于东部,河南、河北、山东大部、安徽和江苏受干旱影响较大。（3）播种−出苗期特旱站次比最高,其余生育阶段均为轻旱站次比最高。     

半干旱草原区沙尘暴灾害承灾体脆弱性动态变化分析

以模糊数学为理论基础,通过构建沙尘暴灾害承灾体脆弱性评价模型,研究了半干旱草原区——锡林郭勒盟沙尘暴灾害承灾体的脆弱性。结果表明:三个时期（1981—1990年、1991—2000年、2001—2010年）锡林郭勒盟地区沙尘暴灾害承灾体的脆弱性表现出逐渐降低的趋势。大风日数减少、植被盖度增加,人口增长速度减缓、牲畜存栏头数和超载率得到一定控制,减轻了承灾体对环境的压力;牧民纯收入的增加、医疗卫生条件的改善、交通设施的增加,增强了承灾体抵御灾害的能力以及灾后恢复力;产业结构逐渐合理化、多元化,有利于经济稳定,对沙尘暴承灾体的脆弱性降低起到积极作用。评价结果表明,模糊数学方法对草原区沙尘暴承灾体脆弱性评价的可行性,评价结果可以为后续的防灾减灾工作提供依据。     

北方地区不同等级干旱对春玉米产量影响

北方地区是中国主要的玉米种植区,在中国玉米总产和播种面积中占有较大比例,同时也是中国易发生干旱的地区,北方地区干旱常态化严重制约着该地区玉米的稳定发展。该文基于北方地区14个省(市、自治区)217个气象台站1961-2010年的逐日气象数据以及作物、土壤和田间管理资料,依据春玉米生长季内降水量并以100 mm为间隔将全区划分为6个区域(Ⅰ~Ⅵ),选取作物水分亏缺指数为农业干旱指标,基于验证后的农业生产系统模型(agricultural production systems simulator,APSIM),明确了各生育阶段不同等级干旱对春玉米产量的影响。研究结果表明,北方地区干旱造成春玉米减产率在空间上呈由西向东下降趋势,降水的空间分布直接导致了灾损程度在各区的差异,其中西部灌溉绿洲农业区雨养种植春玉米干旱风险非常大,需大力发展节水灌溉,而东部雨养农业区自然降水已基本满足春玉米生长发育需要,干旱对春玉米产量影响较小,在模拟过程中很难准确的反映出旱级对产量造成的差异影响。春玉米在拔节—抽雄阶段发生干旱会对产量造成比较严重的影响,该阶段4个等级干旱造成春玉米减产率的四分位区间分别为特旱(20.1%~33.6%)、重旱(12.0%~20.3%)、中旱(6.3%~15.2%)、轻旱(4.7%~11.6%)。     

低氮和干旱胁迫对富士和秦冠生长及氮素利用的影响

【目的】以富士（Fuji）、 秦冠（Qinguan）嫁接在平邑甜茶（Malus hupehensis Rehd.）上的当年生盆栽苗为试验材料,采用砂培方法,研究了缺氮胁迫和干旱对富士和秦冠生长情况、 光合参数、 植株各部位氮磷钾含量及氮素利用效率的影响,分析比较了低氮干旱条件下富士和秦冠生长及氮素利用的差异,以期为果树生产高效肥水利用提供理论指导。【方法】试验共设四个处理: 正常氮正常水（ZZ）、 低氮正常水（DZ）、 正常氮干旱（ZG）、 低氮干旱（DG）。氮素和水分均设置两个水平,分别为正常氮（6 mmol/L NO-3-N）、 低氮（0.3 mmol/LNO-3-N）、 正常供水（保持盆中砂子相对含水量为饱和含水量的80%~85%）、 干旱处理（保持盆中砂子相对含水量为饱和含水量的60%~65%）。【结果】富士和秦冠的生物量（茎和叶）、 株高茎粗等生长指标以及光合速率、 气孔导度、 蒸腾速率均为正常氮正常水（ZZ）＞低氮正常水（DZ）＞正常氮干旱（ZG）＞低氮干旱（DG）,并且相对应处理下秦冠的以上指标均高于富士;正常供水下,缺氮处理使富士、 秦冠的根冠比比正常氮处理均有所增加,富士提高了2.05%,秦冠提高了22.40%。富士和秦冠的氮、 磷、 钾含量均表现出正常氮正常水（ZZ）＞低氮正常水（DZ）＞正常氮干旱（ZG）＞低氮干旱（DG）; 氮、 钾元素含量在植株各部位的分布顺序依次是叶＞根＞茎,磷元素则是根＞叶＞茎;光合氮素利用效率（PNUE）和氮素利用效率表现为秦冠处理之间差异极显著,富士处理之间差异不显著;秦冠的PNUE和NUE明显高于富士,在低氮正常水（DZ）处理下,秦冠氮肥利用率比富士高42.07%,在低氮干旱（DG）处理下高64.14%;低氮胁迫下富士和秦冠的NUE显著提高,并且秦冠提高的幅度高于富士。【结论】施用氮肥能够显著提高富士与秦冠的干物质量,同等水肥条件下,秦冠生长优于富士;水分亏缺会减少叶片对氮的吸收,干旱条件下适度增施氮肥,可提高果树的抗旱能力;低氮干旱胁迫下秦冠的生长指标、 光合指标及氮素利用效率指标均优于富士,表现出较强的抗低氮干旱胁迫的能力。     

Biodiversity and ecogeography of wild Lactuca spp. in some European countries

Staff members of the Department of Botany of Palacký University in Olomouc and Gene Bank Department – Workplace Olomouc, Research Institute of Crop Production in Prague, Czech Republic, conducted an expedition in seven European countries (Austria, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Switzerland) in August/September 1999 to collect wild Lactuca spp. germplasm and study its geographic distribution, ecology and biodiversity. During the mission, more than 600 locations were visited resulting in the collection of 602 seed samples (accessions) of wild Lactuca species and 13 seed samples of related genera (Chondrilla and Mycelis). Lactuca serriola f. serriola, L. serriola f. integrifolia, L. saligna and L. viminea subsp. chondrilliflora were prevalent in southern Europe (Italy, France), however, only L. serriola was common in central and western Europe (Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Netherlands, Switzerland). The greatest diversity of Lactuca species was found in France, where also the most seed samples (165) were collected. The most characteristic habitats with a high density of Lactuca spp. populations were observed along roads and highways, grassy ditches, ruderal communities, and dust-heaps. Natural infections by powdery mildew (Erysiphe cichoracearum) and downy mildew (Bremia lactucae) on some wild Lactuca spp. were observed. Recent observations concerning the geographic distribution, population structure, habitats, and natural occurrence of diseases of Lactuca spp. are discussed. This assemblage of genetic resources of Lactuca spp. can serve as the basis of future studies of species diversification, spatial population structure, plant microevolution, domestication processes, and genetic variability of host-parasite interactions.     

Pasture Vegetation Elemental Analysis by Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is a new technique for the analysis of plant material. This study investigates the application of LIBS to pasture-based plant samples. The LIBS measurements were obtained from pelletized pasture samples (100 samples) that had been also analyzed by inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) following microwave digestion for calibration and comparison purposes. Comparisons for elements sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), boron (B), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S) showed that LIBS could be used for almost all the standard profile total elements with concentrations down to low mg/kg levels (observed error of Na: 0.024 percent, K: 0.18 percent, Mg: 0.016 percent, Ca: 0.073 percent, P: 0.017 percent, Mn: 31 mg/kg, Fe: 150 mg/kg, Zn: 6.6 mg/kg, and B: 1.1 mg/kg). Elemental analysis at less than mg/kg levels was not possible using LIBS. The elements S and Cu were particularly difficult to analyze with reliability using LIBS at the concentration levels found in the plant samples. Replacing microwave digestion and subsequent ICP analysis with a direct analysis of dried plant samples using LIBS has the potential to improve the productivity and reduce the cost of testing.     

Properties of anaerobically digested and composted municipal solid waste assessed by linking soil mesofauna dynamics and nitrogen modelling

We have studied the effect of anaerobically digested (ADMSW) and composted municipal solid waste (CMSW) on mineralization and foodweb dynamics to verify the hypothesis that ADMSW would immobilize N right after addition to soil in contrast to addition with CMSW. Another hypothesis was that the mesofauna (enchytraeids and microarthropods) would stimulate N release from the decomposer community. We measured excretion of -N and urea-N from the mesofauna and hypothesized that enchytraeids would release urea. ADMSW and CMSW were amended to pots with sandy loam and barley. The pots were divided into treatments with or without mesofauna. Mesofauna, plant N and biomass, soil N and ergosterol (fungal biomass) were measured over a 113-day period of four equidistant samplings. Soil respiration, N mineralization and N release by the mesofauna were modelled from concurrent studies. ADMSW- and CMSW-treated soils initially (<20 days) immobilized N. The amendments did not increase plant growth substantially, and this was probably due to N-limitation in the early stages of plant growth. Enchytraeid abundance was about three times higher in ADMSW- than CMSW-treated soils, indicating that ADMSW contained more labile compounds, bacteria, and microfauna. The mesofauna did not affect N-content, but the cumulated -N excreted by the mesofauna was estimated to be substantial and about one-fifth of total plant N in ADMSW. An explanation for this discrepancy might be that in the absence of the mesofauna, other members of the detrivore and microbivore community performed the mesofauna’s function. Neither enchytraeids nor microarthropods excreted urea.     

Faculty positions: Center for Agricultural Resources Research,Chinese Academy of Sciences

正The Center for Agricultural Resources Research(CARR),the Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology(IGDB),Chinese Academy of Sciences,invites applicants for several research group leader positions.CARR is one of the research organizations in Chinese Academy of Sciences(CAS).We seek nominations and applications from individuals who have expertise and a record of accomplishment in research areas related to ecology,agro-hydrology,     

Faculty positions: Center for Agricultural Resources Research,Chinese Academy of Sciences

正The Center for Agricultural Resources Research(CARR),the Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology(IGDB),Chinese Academy of Sciences,invites applicants for several research group leader positions.CARR is one of the research organizations in Chinese Academy of Sciences(CAS).We seek nominations and applications from individuals who have expertise and a record of accomplishment in research areas related to ecology,agro-hydrology,     

Faculty positions:Center for Agricultural Resources Research,Chinese Academy of Sciences

正The Center for Agricultural Resources Research(CARR),the Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology(IGDB),Chinese Academy of Sciences,invites applicants for several research group leader positions.CARR is one of the research organizations in Chinese Academy of Sciences(CAS).We seek nominations and applications from individuals who have expertise and a record of accomplishment in research areas related to ecology,agro-hydrology,     

Macroinvertebrates in North American tallgrass prairie soils: effects of fire, mowing, and fertilization on density and biomass

The responses of tallgrass prairie plant communities and ecosystem processes to fire and grazing are well characterized. However, responses of invertebrate consumer groups, and particularly soil-dwelling organisms, to these disturbances are not well known. At Konza Prairie Biological Station, we sampled soil macroinvertebrates in 1994 and 1999 as part of a long-term experiment designed to examine the effects and interactions of annual fire, mowing, and fertilization (N and P) on prairie soil communities and processes. For nearly all taxa, in both years, responses were characterized by significant treatment interactions, but some general patterns were evident. Introduced European earthworms (Aporrectodea spp. and Octolasion spp.) were most abundant in plots where fire was excluded, and the proportion of the total earthworm community consisting of introduced earthworms was greater in unburned, unmowed, and fertilized plots. Nymphs of two Cicada genera were collected (Cicadetta spp. and Tibicen spp.). Cicadetta nymphs were more abundant in burned plots, but mowing reduced their abundance. Tibicen nymphs were collected almost exclusively from unburned plots. Treatment effects on herbivorous beetle larvae (Scarabaeidae, Elateridae, and Curculionidae) were variable, but nutrient additions (N or P) usually resulted in greater densities, whereas mowing usually resulted in lower densities. Our results suggest that departures from historical disturbance regimes (i.e. frequent fire and grazing) may render soils more susceptible to increased numbers of European earthworms, and that interactions between fire, aboveground biomass removal, and vegetation responses affect the structure and composition of invertebrate communities in tallgrass prairie soils.     

Assessing the effectiveness of conservation measures: Resolving the “wicked” problem of the Steller sea lion

“Wicked” problems are those that are complex and that change when solutions are applied. Many conflicts in conservation fall into this category. The study approached the problem of how to constrain the apparent wickedness of a problem in the conservation management of a species by using simple empirical indicators to carry out iterative assessment of the risk to a population and to document how this risk evolves in relation to the addition of new data and the implementation of management actions. Effects of high levels of uncertainty within data and also concerning population structure were examined through stochastic simulation and by exploration of scenarios. Historical trends in the example used, the Steller sea lion, showed rapid declines in abundance in some regions during the 1980s. The current total population is 130,000-150,000 Steller sea lions through Alaska and British Columbia and this number has been stable since about 1990 in spite of regional differences in population dynamics. Regional differences in the sequence of changes in the number of pups and non-pups, suggested that an internal re-distribution of juveniles could have happened between 1980 and 1990. Current productivity also appears close to the long-term mean. Stochastic population projection using various scenarios showed that, based upon this history, the risk of extinction for the population has declined and is below reasonable thresholds for considering the population to be endangered. The trends in risk suggest that management actions taken since 1990 have probably been effective. Consequently, the conservation management objectives for the Steller sea lion are probably being met. The approach provides a mechanism, based upon experience and scenario analysis, for exploring future policy options and may help to constrain the debate amongst stakeholders about the cost-benefit trade-offs associated with different options.     

Soil-profile distribution of primary and secondary plant-available nutrients under conventional and no tillage

Nutrient distributions under no tillage (NT) compared with conventional disk-and-bed tillage (CT) management in the warm, humid region of the southeastern USA need to be assessed so that future placement, quantity, and type of fertilizers can be altered, if necessary, to efficiently match crop demands. We determined soil-profile distributions of pH, N, P, S, K, Ca, Mg, Na, Zn, Fe, Mn, and Cu to a depth of 0.9 m at the end of 8.5 years of continuous CT and NT management on a Weswood silty clay loam (fine, mixed, thermic Fluventic Ustochrept) in southcentral Texas. Most dramatic changes occurred within the 0–0.05 m depth, where soil under NT had lower pH, Fe, and Cu than under CT, but greater P, K, Zn, and Mn. Greater P and K under NT than under CT also occurred below the till-zone (0.15–0.3 m). At a depth of 0–0.3 m, soil under NT contained greater amounts of extractable P, K, Zn, Fe, Mn, and Cu than under CT. Nitrogen fertilization had little effect on nutrient distributions, except resulting in greater extractable K at 0–0.05 m and greater nitrate at 0–0.15 m. Few changes in soil-profile distributions were observed for extractable S, Ca, Mg, and Na. Long-term continuous use of NT on this fine-textured, high-fertility (except for N) soil had no apparent adverse effects on nutrient distributions relative to CT, but enhanced conservation and availability of P, K, Zn, Fe, Mn, and Cu near the soil surface where crop roots proliferate.