Epicuticular wax of needles of Pinus cembra,Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies

Epicuticular wax composition and its variation with needle age was analysed chemically. Needles were taken from conifers at the highest altitude of their local distribution. Quantitative and qualitative differences in the composition of the three conifer waxes were found. Increasing needle age influenced the wax composition in Pinus cembra and Picea abies.     

The effects of a heat treatment on the behaviour of extractives in softwood studied by FTIR spectroscopic methods

Scots pine battens were heat-treated at 100–240º C under saturated steam. Cross-sections of heat-treated battens were analysed using ATR and reflection FTIR microscopies. A typical absorption band of fats and waxes at 1740 cm^-1 was detected on the sapwood edges in the temperature range of 100–160º C, indicating that fats and waxes moved along the axial parenchyma cells to the surface of the sapwood during the heat treatment. At the elevated temperatures (above 180° C) fats and waxes disappeared from the sapwood surface and were no longer detected with FTIR spectroscopy. Resin acids were detected at temperatures between 100 and 180º C in the middle of the battens. IR spectra of these spots showed a characteristic absorption band of resin acids at 1697 cm^-1. At 200º C resin acids were not detected in the middle of the battens; however, resin acids were detected at distances of 500 and 600 mm from the midpoint of the battens and on the edges of battens. At temperatures above 200° C, resin acids had disappeared from the wood.     

Canadian conifers as hosts of the pinewood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus): Results of seedling inoculations

Seedlings of 22 species of conifers from across Canada were inoculated with m and r form isolates of the pinewood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus). In an experiment made under ambient (summer‐fall) temperatures in a shadehouse at Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, 8 of the 22 conifer species were killed by the nematodes, but mortality was low, i.e. 4–30%. Pines (eastern white, Jack and red) were more susceptible than other conifers. Yellow cypress, eastern white cedar, western red cedar and western hemlock were not killed by the nematodes. In a second experiment made at elevated temperatures (30°C‐16h long days, 25°C‐8 h long nights) in a greenhouse, 18 of the 22 conifer species died following nematode inoculation. Again, pines (lodgepole, eastern white, western white and red) were among the most susceptible tree species and the four conifers that were unaffected in the first experiment were not killed. Tamarack and western larch, both immune at ambient temperatures, were the two most susceptible conifers at elevated temperatures. Compared to ambient temperatures, seedlings at elevated temperatures died quicker and contained more nematodes. M and r form nematodes were equally pathogenic in both experiments.     

Establishment of a permanent rearing of Cacopsylla picta (Hemiptera: Psylloidea), the main vector of ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma mali’ in Germany

The univoltine psyllid Cacopsylla picta (Foerster) is the main vector of ‘Ca. Phytoplasma mali’ in Germany, the causal agent of apple proliferation, an economically important disease of apple in Europe. Its population dynamics on its host plant apple (Malus spp.) and migration to coniferous shelter plants for overwintering have been described for Southwest Germany. Temporary greenhouse rearing under controlled conditions, starting from field-collected overwintered adults, was set up to produce homogeneous offspring. New generation adults were transferred to conifers in the greenhouse at the beginning of the natural migration phase to obtain a continuous rearing spanning the aestivation and hibernation period. However, efforts to directly overwinter C. picta on different conifer species failed. The natural overwintering sites were therefore identified and their climatic conditions, mainly moderate summer temperatures with increased humidity and natural cold winter conditions including frost were reproduced. Teneral individuals of the new generation did not switch instantaneously from host plants to conifers. Successful overwintering under experimental conditions was only achieved using a gradual host plant transfer. By incorporating these key factors two continuous rearings of C. picta were maintained over 3 years with both, spruce and pine, as suitable shelter plants. This is the first report of a permanent rearing of C. picta under experimental conditions. Our data show experimentally that C. picta is univoltine and that conifers act only as shelter plants for overwintering and not as hosts for reproduction.     

Effects of afforestation on soil organic matter characteristics under subtropical forests with low elevation

We selected sites of natural broad-leaved forests and adjacent coniferous plantations (Cunninghamia konishii and Calocedrus formosana of 30 and 80 years old, respectively) in central Taiwan to evaluate the effects of plantations on soil organic matter (SOM) characteristics and composition. SOM was characterized by chemical analyses, solid-state ¹³C cross-polarization magic-angle nuclear magnetic resonance (CPMAS ¹³C NMR), and optical measurements. Semiquantitative analysis of CPMAS ¹³C NMR spectra showed the litter of broad-leaved forests to be less resistant to decomposition than that of coniferous forests. The humification degree of SOM was higher under broad-leaved than coniferous forests because of the relatively high percentage of aromatic C and carboxyl C in the humic acids (HAs) of A horizons under broad-leaved forests. Additionally, the E ₄/E ₆ ratio of HAs was lower in the A horizon under broad-leaved than coniferous forests, which reflected more condensation of SOM. High alkyl C content under coniferous forests could be attributed to needle litter quality, which has a high content of waxes or lipids. Afforestation with conifers induced accumulation of the litterfall layer, gradually increased SOM concentrations, and changed the composition structures of SOM in the topsoils.     

Effects of soil temperature on parameters of a coupled photosynthesis-stomatal conductance model

To examine the effects of soil temperature on a coupled photosynthesis-stomatal conductance model, seedlings of trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.), jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.), black spruce (Picea Mariana (Mill.) B.S.P.) and white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) were exposed to soil temperatures ranging from 5 to 35 degrees C for 4 months. Light and CO(2) response curves of foliar gas exchange were measured for model parameterization. The effects of soil temperature on four key model parameters, V(cmax) (maximum rate of carboxylation), J(max) (maximum rate of electron transport), alpha (energy conversion efficiency or quantum efficiency of electron transport) and R(d) (daytime dark respiration), were modeled using two third-order polynomial equations and a modified Arrhenius equation. In all species, V(cmax) and J(max) increased with soil temperature up to an optimum, and then decreased with further increases in soil temperature. In the conifers, alpha showed a similar response to soil temperature as V(cmax) and J(max), but soil temperature had no significant effect on alpha in aspen. Soil temperature had no significant effect on R(d) in any species. The three equations described the relationships between soil temperature and the model parameters reasonably well, but performed best for V(cmax) and worst for alpha. No significant relationships were identified between soil temperature and the parameters of the stomatal conductance model.     

五种针叶树个体高生长过程研究

运用SAS分别建立了5种针叶树树高与树龄的回归方程。通过模型分析，预测了5种针叶树在研究区内的最终树高，分析了不同生长阶段树高生长的速度变化，比较了树高生长年快慢，划分了树高的生长阶段，提出了相应的经营措施。     

双条杉天牛不同虫期体壁碳氢化合物变化规律分析

[目的]研究双条杉天牛幼虫期和成虫期体壁碳氢化合物的变化规律,对不同虫期体壁碳氢化合物成分、含量和比例进行分析,期望在此基础上探索体壁碳氢化合物在其生殖行为中的功能。[方法]采用固相微萃取和溶剂浸提两种采样方法收集双条杉天牛不同虫期的体壁碳氢化合物成分,进一步采用气相色谱-质谱联用仪(GC-MS)对提取物进行分析,比较不同成分在不同虫期的含量和比例。[结果]双条杉天牛体壁碳氢化合物成分主要包括C15-C31之间的正烷桂、烯桂、单甲基支链烷桂和二甲基支链烷桂。幼虫体壁碳氢化合物以C15~C31正烷桂为主,含量占64.67%,其中n-C27含量最高(21.57%);烯桂仅检测到角鲨烯,含量占19.4%;甲基支链烷桂仅检测到3Me-C25和11,15diMe-C27,含量占15.93%。在刚羽化的雌成虫中正烷桂占60.42%,甲基支链烷桂占39.58%;雄成虫中正烷桂占74.15%,甲基支链烷桂占25.85%。扬飞期雌成虫中正烷桂占53.13%,甲基支链烷桂占46.87%;雄成虫中正烷桂占45.99%,甲基支链烷桂占54.01%;雌雄成虫中均是n-C25含量最高。随着虫体的发育,正烷桂含量呈下降趋势,而甲基支链烷桂呈上升趋势。溶剂浸提法和固相微萃取法提取的体壁碳氢化合物有相似的变化趋势。[结论]双条杉天牛不同虫期体壁碳氢化合物各种成分含量的变化与其发育的性成熟度有关。幼虫体壁中未检测到11Me-C26,11Me-C27和3Me-C27,这3种成分在雌雄成虫中含量差异显著,推测其可能在成虫生殖行为中扮演重要角色,这为进一步研究双条杉天牛接触性识别信息素奠定良好基础。     

Hydraulic conductances of angiosperms versus conifers: similar transport sufficiency at the whole-plant level

Bond's "slow seedling" hypothesis proposes that, because of slow growth rates caused by an inefficient transport system and low leaf photosynthetic capacity, gymnosperm seedlings are weak competitors with angiosperms in productive habitats. We measured component (shoot, leaf, and root) and whole-plant hydraulic conductances of sapling-sized tropical plants growing on nitrogen-poor white sand in Borneo. After accounting for size effects, there were no significant differences in conductances between evergreen angiosperms (nine species) and conifers (three species). Plant successional status or transpiration rate seemed more important than soil fertility in determining hydraulic conductance-colonizers had significantly higher whole-plant conductance than late-succession species. Contrary to prediction, leaf hydraulic conductance (normalized by projected leaf area) was unrelated to complexity of venation in conifers and angiosperms, but was highly correlated with whole-plant conductance. Analyses of published data showed that leafless branches of temperate deciduous angiosperms had higher leaf-area normalized hydraulic conductivity than conifers, but there was no significant difference in adult, whole-plant conductance between these taxa. Thus, at the branch level, conifers with narrow tracheids have less efficient transport than angiosperms with wider vessels, but variations in other resistance components and hydraulic architecture (e.g., sapwood/leaf area ratio) ultimately equalize the sufficiency of water transport to leaves of conifers and angiosperms. Although failing to support one of the proposed mechanisms, our findings did not refute the "slow seedling" hypothesis per se.     

Relationship between temperature, respiratory loss of sugar and premature dehardening in dormant Scots pine seedlings

Increased intracellular sugar concentration is an important contributor to the increased cold tolerance of conifers in winter. This study examines the extent to which wintertime respiratory loss of sugars leads to premature dehardening. Two-year-old seedlings of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), grown and cold-hardened in the field, were exposed to different temperature regimes for 16 weeks while dormant. To minimize short-term carry-over effects, after the temperature treatments, all seedlings were conditioned to 5.5 degrees C and watered before the assessment of non-structural carbohydrates and cold tolerance. Needle sugar concentration was decreased by 54, 32, 21 and 9% following treatment at 5.5, 0, -1.5 and -8.5 degrees C, respectively. Sugar concentration did not decrease as much in root tissues as in needles because starch was mobilized in roots. Cold tolerance of needles was analyzed by controlled freezing, and the temperature causing an initial 10% damage (LT(10)) was plotted as a function of needle sugar concentration, revealing a strong, linear relationship. When one-third of the initial sugars had been consumed, LT(10) had increased from -24.5 to -16.5 degrees C, and when one half had been consumed, LT(10) had increased to -10 degrees C. Consequences of these findings for the field performance of conifers are discussed in relation to climatic variation and change.     

Hydraulic conductivity, photosynthesis and leaf water balance in six evergreen woody species from fall to winter

To confirm that freeze-thaw embolism is a primary stress for evergreen woody species in winter, hydraulic conductivity, photosynthesis and leaf water potential were measured during fall and winter in trees growing in a cool temperate zone (Nikko) and in a warm temperate zone (Tokyo). We examined two evergreen conifers that naturally occur in the cool temperate zone (Abies firma Siebold & Zucc. and Abies homolepis Siebold & Zucc.), and four evergreen broad-leaved woody species that are restricted to the warm temperate zone (Camellia japonica L., Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl, Ilex crenata Thunb. and Quercus myrsinaefolia Blume). In Tokyo, where no freeze-thaw cycles of xylem sap occurred, hydraulic conductivity, photosynthesis and water balance remained constant during the experimental period. In Nikko, where there were 38 daily freeze-thaw cycles by February, neither of the tracheid-bearing evergreen conifers showed xylem embolism or leaf water deficits. Similarly, the broad-leaved evergreen trees with small-diameter vessels did not exhibit severe embolism or water deficits and maintained CO(2) assimilation even in January. In contrast, the two broad-leaved evergreen trees with large-diameter vessels showed significantly reduced hydraulic conductivity and shoot die-back in winter. We conclude that freeze-thaw embolism restricts evergreen woody species with large-diameter vessels to the warm temperate zone, whereas other stresses limit the distribution of broad-leaved trees, that have small-diameter vessels, but which are restricted to the warm temperate zone.     

Minimum cuticular conductance and cuticle features of Picea abies and Pinus cembra needles along an altitudinal gradient in the Dolomites (NE Italian Alps)

Winter desiccation is believed to contribute to stress in coniferous trees growing at the treeline because cuticular conductance increases with altitude. To test whether winter desiccation occurs in high-altitude conifers of the Dolomites (NE Italian Alps), we measured minimum cuticular conductance (g(min)), needle wettability (contact angle) and cuticle thickness in Picea abies (L.) Karst. and Pinus cembra L. needles from December to August. Samples were collected from adult trees along an altitudinal gradient from valley bottom (1050 m a.s.l.) to the treeline (2170 m a.s.l.). The treeline site is one of the highest in the area and is characterized by a generally low wind exposure. Altitude had no effect on g(min) in either species. In P. abies, large seasonal variations in g(min) were recorded but no changes were related to needle age class. Pinus cembra had a low g(min) and appeared to be efficient in reducing needle water losses. There was a significant increase in g(min) with needle aging in P. cembra growing at low altitude that could be related to a shorter needle longevity compared with P. abies. High contact angles (> 110-120 ) suggested the presence of tubular epicuticular waxes on needles of both species. Contact angles were higher (low wettability) in high-altitude needles than in low-altitude needles. By the end of winter, there was no difference in contact angles between needles in the windward and leeward positions. Wax structures transformed toward planar shapes as demonstrated by the decrease in contact angle from winter to summer. In both species, the cuticle was thicker in needles of high-altitude trees than in needles of low-altitude trees and there was no correlation between g(min) and cuticle thickness. Because desiccation resistance did not decrease with altitude in either species, we conclude that they are not susceptible to winter desiccation at the tree line.     

Effects of natural and induced pollution on the leaf wax structure of three cypress species

Severe damage was caused to coastal forest vegetation by the Libeccio, a sea wind blowing against the Italian coast from W-SW. The behaviour of common cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), smooth cypress (C. glabra) and Monterey cypress (C. macrocarpa) in response to the Libeccio windstorms of 1990 was compared with that due to treatments with the surfactant ABS (sodium dodecylbenzenesulphonate). As regards both the nature and the intensity of the damage to the leaf waxes, the surge damage caused by the windstorms differed little from that produced artifi-cially by ABS sprays.     

Combined effects of UV light and elevated temperatures on wood discolouration

Wood Science and Technology - Two conifers and two deciduous wood species were irradiated by strong UV emitter mercury lamp at elevated temperatures up to 160 °C. Other series of...     

Development and assessment of a gap-type model to predict the effects of climate change on forests based on spatial forest data

A gap-model was modified in order to utilise ground-true forest data to predict the effect of climate change on forests in Finland. The model's resonse to climate change was evaluated by using test scenarios of changing temperature and precipitation in Finland. Model computations indicated that in Southern Finland conifers, Norway spruce in particular, suffered from rapidly increasing temperature (0.5°C in a decade), but Scots pine derived a small benefit from a temperature increase of 0.1°C in a decade. Pendula birch profited by increasing temperature. In Northern Finland all tree species (Scots pine, Norway spruce, Pendula birch and Pubescent birch) used in simulations increased their stand volume and total production due to increased temperature. Precipitation changes had only little effect on stand volume and total production of trees on sites with coarse moraine as soil texture. The effect of soil texture on model performance was examined at a southern site under current climate using moraine, sand and silt as soil textures. Stand volume and total production of coniferous trees remained at a lower level on sand than on moraine soils or on silt. Response of birches to soil texture was similar to that of the conifers, but differences in total production between soil textures remained smaller.     

Comparative study of organic solvent and water-soluble lipophilic extractives from wheat straw I: yield and chemical composition

 The chemical composition of six lipophilic extractives from wheat straw by extraction with toluene-ethanol (2 : 1, v/v), chloroform-methanol (2 : 1, v/v), methyl tert-butyl ether, hexane, petroleum ether, and dichloromethane, respectively, in a Soxhlet extractor, and one water-soluble lipophilic extract has been examined. Five main lipid classes (free fatty/resin acids, sterols, waxes, steryl esters, triglycerides) were identified and their individual components quantified by gas chromatography as their trimethylsilyl (TMS) esters (free fatty/resin acids) and TMS ethers (sterols). The abundant saturated fatty acids were palmitic acid (C16:0), myristic acid (C14:0), and pentadecanoic acid (C15:0). Palmitoleic acid (C16:1), linoleic acid (C18:2), and oleic acid (C18:1) were the major unsaturated free fatty acids. Abietic acid was detected as the only single component in the resin acids. Of the sterols identified, β-sitosterol was found to be the major compound together with minor amounts of cholesterol, ergosterol, stigmasterol, and stigmastanol. Palmityl palmitate and oleyl palmitate were identified as the major components in waxes. The steryl esters analyzed were composed of steryl laurate, steryl myristate, steryl palmitate, steryl heptadecanoate, and steryl oleate. Tripalmitin, dipalmitoyl-oleoylglycerol, and triolein were the major components of the triglycerides. Received: January 29, 2001 / Accepted: January 30, 2001 Acknowledgments We are grateful for the financial support of this research from the LINK program (fractionation of wheat straw) of the U.K. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food, and the prominent young scientist program of National Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 30025036). We also thank Mrs. Jianmin Fang for her help with extraction of the samples. Correspondence to:R.C. Sun     

云冷杉针阔混交林天然更新的灰色分析

影响云冷杉混交林天然更新效果的因素有很多,哪种因素起的作用大,仅用定性分析难以做出判断。本文采用灰色系统理论中的关联分析法,对影响云冷杉针阔混交林天然更新的因素进行排序分析。排序结果依重要性由高到低为:海拔高度、蓄积量、林木株数、郁闭度、坡度、腐殖质厚度、针叶树株数、针叶树蓄积比重。在人为可以控制的因素中蓄积量得分最高,其次是林木株数、郁闭度、针叶树株数、针叶树蓄积比重。     

美国白松生长特性的研究

以山东乡土针叶树种油松和黑松作对比,研究了从美国引种的１２年生美国白松的物候期及新梢、针叶的生长特性。以Ｌｏｇｉｓｔｉｃ方程拟合３种针叶树新梢和针叶的生长,并用数学分析的方法确定各树种新梢和针叶的速生期和速生点。测定了３个针叶树种的径、高年生长量。结果表明,美国白松在山东能够正常生长发育,生长期比油松和黑松短,但生长迅速,年生长量比较大,是一个值得引进并扩大栽培的速生针叶树种     

针叶植物叶片比较解剖及生态解剖研究综述

针叶林在全球森林系统构成中面积分布最广,且森林分布以针叶林为林线。随着气侯变化问题的日益严重,对针叶植物及其应对环境变化的响应研究逐渐成为热点。本文一方面从比较解剖学角度综述针叶植物叶片解剖结构特点及具有分类价值的解剖性状,另一方面从生态解剖学角度综述针叶外部形态、针叶厚度、针叶表皮及内部解剖结构对干旱、高寒、盐碱和UV-B辐射等逆境胁迫的响应。并提出可能存在的问题和今后发展的方向。     

Epicuticular waxes,peroxidase activity and contents of chlorophyll,phaeophytin and carotenoids of needles from Pinus syivestris and picea abies as indicators of air pollution in the region of Stockholm

To trace any possible effects of air pollution stress and injuries on trees around a city centre, needles of Scots pine (Pinus Syivestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) from sites of different distances and directions from Stockholm were analysed. Comparisons were made between needles of different ages, a half to three and a half years old (C ‐ C + 3) for pine up to six and a half years old (C ‐ C + 6) for spruce. Epicuticular waxes, studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), showed age‐dependent but site‐independent changes. Different age‐patterns were found in the pine and spruce needles but no dust coverings or lesions were detected, irrespective of the sites. A proportionally increasing peroxidase activity (EC 1.11.1.7) with increasing needle‐age up to the third year was observed in both species. No certain indication of site‐effects, expressed by an unproportional increase of the enzyme activity with increasing needle‐age could be found. Chlorophyll a and b, phaeophytin a and b and carotenoid analyses on the corresponding materials only indicated disturbances in trees from some scattered sampling plots. Thus, neither could the pigment analyses reveal any signs of a general pollution stress in pine and spruce trees from the area in question.