Effect of cultivated copepods (Acartia tonsa) in first‐feeding of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) and ballan wrasse (Labrus bergylta) larvae

The aim of this study was to compare the nutritional composition and effects of short periods with cultivated copepod nauplii versus rotifers in first‐feeding. Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) and ballan wrasse (Labrus bergylta) larvae were given four different dietary regimes in the earliest start‐feeding period. One group was fed the copepod Acartia tonsa nauplii (Cop), a second fed enriched rotifers (RotMG), a third fed unenriched rotifers (RotChl) and a fourth copepods for the seven first days of feeding and enriched rotifers the rest of the period (Cop7). Cod larvae were fed Artemia sp. between 20 and 40 dph (days posthatching), and ballan wrasse between 36 and 40 dph, with weaning to a formulated diet thereafter. In addition to assessing growth and survival, response to handling stress was measured. This study showed that even short periods of feeding with cultivated copepod nauplii (7 days) had positive long‐term effects on the growth and viability of the fish larvae. At the end of both studies (60 days posthatching), fish larvae fed copepods showed higher survival, better growth and viability than larvae fed rotifers. This underlines the importance of early larval nutrition.     

单胞藻饵料强化对太平洋纺锤水蚤营养成分的影响

采用生化手段对舟山附近海域中浮游桡足类夏季优势种—太平洋纺锤水蚤(Acartia pacifica)进行营养成分测定,比较分析两种单胞藻饵料小球藻(Chlorella sp.)和三角褐指藻(Phaeodactylum tricornutum)对其营养价值的影响。结果表明,太平洋纺锤水蚤在投喂三角褐指藻和投喂小球藻后,其体内粗蛋白湿重含量分别为(6.51±0.46)%和(5.21±0.98)%,比对照组(2.44±0.63)%显著上升(P0.05);投喂三角褐指藻后太平洋纺锤水蚤粗脂肪湿重含量(0.25±0.03)%显著上升(P0.05),投喂小球藻后粗脂肪湿重含量(0.15±0.03)%显著下降(P0.05);但总糖和灰分湿重含量变化不明显(P0.05)。本研究检测出太平洋纺锤水蚤体内共含17种氨基酸,其中鱼类必需氨基酸(EAA)9种,非必需氨基酸(NEAA)8种,对照组与投喂两种饵料后太平洋纺锤水蚤中EAA含量均较高,干重含量为(47.56±0.04)%~(49.84±0.07)%;检测出太平洋纺锤水蚤共含21种脂肪酸,投喂三角褐指藻后太平洋纺锤水蚤的DHA和EPA干重含量之和最高(28.00%),其次为投喂小球藻(21.51%),均高于对照组(9.77%),而对照组干重(9.77%)也仍高于强化后轮虫DHA和EPA干重含量(0.8%)和强化后卤虫DHA和EPA干重含量(8.40%)。通过本实验发现,自然状态下的太平洋纺锤水蚤DHA和EPA含量较高,营养价值高,而投喂后三角褐指藻后太平洋纺锤水蚤营养价值明显增加,表明人工培养条件下太平洋纺锤水蚤具有作为水产经济动物活体开口饵料的潜在开发价值。     

The effects of temperature and photoperiod on egg hatching success,egg production and population growth of the calanoid copepod,Acartia grani (Calanoida: Acartiidae)

Calanoid copepods, including species of the genus Acartia, are commonly used as larval diets for marine finfish. This study aimed to determine the separate effects of water temperature (18, 22, 24, 28° ± 0.5°C) and photoperiod (24L:0D; 18L:6D; 12L:12D; 8L:18D; 0L:24D) on Acartia grani egg production (EP), hatching rate (EHR) and population growth. Egg production rate was not affected by the two abiotic parameters. A. grani eggs incubated at T24°C and T28°C were the first to achieve 50% hatching rate (23–25 hr), with significant differences at the end of the experiment (48 hr) between T28°C treatment (EHR 88 ± 5%) and T18°C treatment (EHR 65 ± 2%). However, different temperature regimes did not affect final number of individuals in population growth experiment. Still, when eggs were excluded from data, population at lower temperatures (18°C) was mainly composed by the nauplii stage (72%), while at higher temperatures (24°C and 28°C) more than 60% of the population was composed by copepodites and adults. A. grani subjected to long‐day photoperiods had significantly lower EHR (16.7% at 24L:0D; 20.8% at 18L:6D) than at short‐day photoperiods (52.6% at 6L:18D; 50.0% at 0L:24D). In population growth experiment, eggs were the most common life stage after 12‐day culture. Lowest population number was found at constant light conditions (665.0 ± 197.1), suggesting higher metabolic rates and depletion of energy reserves in long‐day conditions. This study expanded knowledge on the biological response of A. grani to separate temperature and photoperiod regimes, and provided ground to improve the culture of this potential life feed species for hatcheries.     

A first step towards improving copepod cultivation using modelling: the effects of density,crowding, cannibalism,tank design and strain selection on copepod egg production yields

Copepods are the optimal live feed for hatcheries and improvement of cultivation techniques, to provide a constant food source, is crucial for the expansion of the industry. However, studies based on experimental work and real observations can be labour intensive and expensive. A simple model was developed based on the well‐known life history traits of Acartia tonsa to describe batch cultures and their productivity. Model results were compared to observations from real cultures. For maximizing egg production yields, the optimal stocking density of copepods should be adapted to the design (depth) of the culture tanks. At high densities, stress due to encountering conspecifics, as well as cannibalism of eggs by adults, limits egg production yields. Using this model, the potential selection efficacy of copepod strains was also evaluated in order to increase production yields. Selecting larger copepods increases the egg production per litre of culture, but decreases the optimal stocking density and the range of densities at which egg production yield is high, and vice‐versa. Selecting copepods that are less affected by stress due to conspecifics only affect production yields at very high adult densities. However, selecting copepods with a high Specific Growth Rate (SGR), or improving their SGR, was found to be an alternative which did not affect the optimal cultivation densities but improved egg production yields.     

Invasion of artificial ponds in Doñana Natural Park,southwest Spain,by an exotic estuarine copepod

• 1. During a study of five artificial brackish ponds situated in Doñana Natural Park and the Guadalquivir delta between July 2001 and June 2002, a total of six copepod species (two calanoids, three cyclopoids and one harpacticoid) were recorded. All of them are typical of brackish or estuarine habitats.
• 2. The estuarine calanoid copepod Acartia tonsa (originally from North America) was present in all the ponds studied. This exotic species has been found previously in European estuaries, but has not previously been recorded from artificial wetlands.
• 3. Both the relative and absolute abundance of the species varied significantly among months and ponds. A. tonsa was most abundant during autumn and spring, while Calanipeda aquae‐dulcis was most abundant in summer. This seasonal pattern of the copepod community composition was different from that reported in studies from other European estuaries or wetlands.
• 4. The invasion by and dominance of A. tonsa in the area of Doñana Natural Park has important implications for the conservation of the diverse native zooplankton fauna in the natural marshes of the adjacent Doñana National Park, which includes endemic species.

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ontogenetic development of attack behaviour by turbot larvae when exposed to copepod prey

Identification of fish larval behavioural traits permitting capture of specific live prey sizes is an important part of optimizing production of marine larvae. We investigated the capture success of turbot larvae (Scophthalmus maximus) at two development stages, 8 and 10 days post‐hatch (DPH), when offered small nauplii (129–202 μm), large nauplii (222–278 μm) and copepodites (342–542 μm), of the calanoid copepod Acartia tonsa. At 8 DPH, turbot larvae had the highest capture success (67%) when offered small nauplii, with a lower capture success of large nauplii (27%) but totally lacked the capabilities to capture copepodites. At DPH 10, the larvae increased the capture success of large nauplii (47%) and achieved a few successful attacks on copepodites. Energetically, large nauplii were the most beneficial at both larval development stages. The swimming kinematics of the period prior to a strike by the larva on the copepod was examined, and the approach pattern of the larva was identified as a controlling mechanism for their strike distance, with the initial approach speed of larva at DPH 10 being significantly less than at DPH 8. In all successful attacks, the strike distance was less than 1.17 mm and was significantly lower than unsuccessful attacks. Since the approach pattern of the larva is linked to its capture success, it could be used as the basis for a feeding scheme based on the swimming performance of individual batches of turbot larvae.     

Tolerance of un‐ionized ammonia in live feed cultures of the calanoid copepod Acartia tonsa Dana

Optimal water quality is considered as being a restriction for marine copepod cultures for live feed. There is a lack of knowledge on the water‐quality conditions in copepod cultures and the effect on copepods. Few studies have investigated the effect of ammonia on copepods, and fewer reports No Observed Effect Concentrations (NOEC) and Lowest Observed Effect Concentrations (LOEC), which provides safety levels before cultures are affected. This study investigates the tolerance of Acartia tonsa nauplii and adults to ammonia, using mortality as the endpoint after 24, 48 and 72 h of exposure. Nauplii were exposed to levels from 0 to 5127 μg NH₃ L^?1 and adults to levels from 0 to 8481 μg NH₃ L^?1. Nauplii NOEC was 30 μg NH₃ L^?1 and LOEC was 81 μg NH₃ L^?1. Adult NOEC was 477 μg NH₃ L^?1 and LOEC was 1789 μg NH₃ L^?1. 50% Lethal Concentrations (LC₅₀) for nauplii of 48 and 72 h was 1257 and 220 μg NH₃ L^?1. LC₅₀ for adults was 2370 (24 h), 972 (48 h) and 770 (72 h). Combining NOEC with excretion rates of NH₄/NH₃ a model was developed to calculate densities in batch cultures. We recommend that for batch cultures of A. tonsa, NH₃ is kept below NOEC for nauplii and that levels of NH₃ together with pH are monitored weekly.     

A production season of turbot larvae Scophthalmus maximus (Linnaeus, 1758) reared on copepods in a Danish (56°N) semi‐intensive outdoor system

Turbot were reared from yolk sack larvae to juvenile in an outdoor semi‐intensive system. Three production cycles were monitored from May to September. A pelagic food chain was established with phytoplankton, copepods and turbot larvae. Abiotic and biotic parameters of lower trophic levels together with turbot larval survival, development, prey electivity and growth were monitored. A decreasing larval survival from 18.4% in May to 13.6% in July and just 7.0% in September was observed. The overall phytoplankton and copepod abundance decreased during the productive season. The turbot larval growth showed significant differences between larvae below (isometric) and above (allometric) 7 mm. Larval fish gut content showed no differences with available prey between production cycles. Therefore, it appears that the available prey concentration is governing their growth in this outdoor system. First‐feeding turbot larvae exhibited active selection for nauplii whereas developed larvae switched to copepodites and adult copepods. Although developing turbot larva exhibited active selection towards copepod size classes, there was no evidence of selective feeding on either of the two dominant copepod species. The turbot larvae's prey ingestion was modelled together with the standing stock of copepod biomass. The model results indicated that the estimated need for daily ingestion exceeded the standing stock of copepods. Hence, the initially established food web was unable to sustain the added turbot larvae with starvation as a consequence. We therefore suggest several solutions to circumvent starvation in the semi‐intensive system.     

Effects of adult stocking density on egg production and viability in cultures of the calanoid copepod Acartia tonsa (Dana)

The effect of stocking density of the calanoid copepod Acartia tonsa was evaluated in a 96 h rearing experiment. Possible density‐dependent egg production and egg viability were analysed at stocking densities of 100, 200, 300, 400 and 600 adults L⁻¹. Temperature, oxygen saturation and algal concentration were kept optimal. A non‐density‐dependent mortality rate of 15–19% day⁻¹ was documented. A non‐significant density‐dependent egg production was observed between 100 and 600 adults L⁻¹. The average egg production was 22.5±8.8 egg female⁻¹ day⁻¹ in all densities. The average egg hatching success was 84.7±4.8% and was never observed below 76.1%, with no significant differences across the stocking densities. Conclusively, as a practical recommendation for the aquaculture industry, copepod cultures with densities ranging from 100 to 600 adults L⁻¹ and presumably even more dense cultures are possible with the studied species obtaining a steady egg production and still high egg viability.