阳离子A对内毒素诱导兔自由基损伤的保护作用

将56只白兔随机分成3组Ⅰ组为正常对照组,共8只;Ⅱ组为内毒素(endotoxin,ET)处理组,共24只;Ⅲ组为阳离子A(cationA,CA)+ET组,共24只.Ⅰ组静注等量的生理盐水,Ⅱ组静注ET 300 μg/kg,Ⅲ组静注CA 200 mg/kg后,静注ET 300μg/kg.1、2、3、4、5 h后分别采集血液制备血浆样品.2、5 h捕杀Ⅰ组兔4只,Ⅱ、Ⅲ组兔各12只,迅速采集肝脏制备组织匀浆.检测血浆T-AOC、CAT活性和MDA含量,肝GSH、GSH-ST、GSH-Px活性.结果显示Ⅰ组各项指标均保持相对稳定;Ⅱ组MDA含量比Ⅰ组升高(P＜0.01),Ⅲ组MDA含量升高不显著;Ⅱ组T-AOC、CAT活性比Ⅰ组降低(P＜0.01),Ⅲ组显著高于Ⅱ组(1、2、3 h,P＜0.01;4、5 h,P＜0.05);Ⅱ组肝脏GSH和GSH-ST活性显著降低(P＜0.01),第5 h GSH-Px活性降低(P＜0.01),第2 h(P＜0.05);Ⅲ组GSH、GSH-Px(第5 h显著降低)、GSH-ST活性降低不明显.结果提示自由基参与了ET休克的病理过程,CA能有效地保护血浆和肝脏免受自由基的损伤.     

鹿皮蝇蛆对驯鹿抗氧化能力的影响

为了探讨驯鹿鹿皮蝇蛆对驯鹿机体氧化应激的影响,分别对鹿皮蝇蛆感染组和未感染组驯鹿血清中的总超氧化物歧化酶(T-SOD)、一氧化氮(NO)、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GSH-Px)、丙二醛(MDA)、羟自由基(.OH)及总抗氧化能力(T-AOC)进行测定。结果表明鹿皮蝇蛆感染组血清中T-SOD、T-AOC活性、抑制.OH能力及NO含量极显著低于未感染组(P<0.01),血清中GSH-Px活性显著低于未感染组(P<0.05);血清中MDA含量极显著高于未感染组(P<0.01)。说明驯鹿感染鹿皮蝇蛆后,机体清除自由基能力降低,自由基在机体内大量蓄积,导致机体产生氧化应激反应。     

氨基胍对内毒素血症山羊肝线粒体自由基代谢的影响

为探讨氨基胍对内毒素血症山羊肝线粒体自由基代谢的影响,将48只健康山羊随机分为4组,生理盐水(SL)组、内毒素(LPS)组、氨基胍(AG)组和氨基胍(AG LPS)保护组.每组分别取肝组织,提取肝线粒体,检测T-SOD、T-AOC、CAT、GSH-Px和GR活性及MDA含量的变化.结果显示,内毒素血症时山羊肝线粒体中SOD、GSH-Px、GR和CAT活性降低,T-AOC活力下降,MDA含量明显增加,而氨基胍保护组肝线粒体抗氧化酶活性普遍回升,MDA含量明显下降.提示,氨基胍能减轻内毒素血症山羊因脂质过氧化造成的肝线粒体损伤,保护肝线粒体功能.     

连翘酯苷对LPS诱导的肉鸡法氏囊中NO及抗氧化酶活性的影响

本试验研究了连翘酯苷对内毒素(LPS)诱导的肉鸡法氏囊中一氧化氮(NO)、总抗氧化能力(T-AOC)、总超氧化物歧化酶(T-SOD)、还原型谷胱甘肽(GSH)和丙二醛(MDA)含量的影响.结果表明:连翘酯苷组中T-AOC、T-SOD和GSH活性明显升高,与正常组比较差异显著(P＜0.05)；LPS组中NO和MDA含量明显升高,T-AOC、T-SOD和GSH活性明显降低,与正常组比较差异显著(P＜0.05)；连翘酯苷治疗组中NO和MDA含量明显降低,T-AOC、T-SOD和GSH活性明显升高,与LPS组比较差异显著(P＜0.05).研究结果表明:连翘酯苷可提高肉仔鸡抗氧化功能,并且可以抑制由LPS引起的氧化反应.     

肉鸡内毒素血症时血浆(清)抗氧化酶活性的变化及氨基胍对其的影响

将120只30日龄肉鸡(公母各半)随机均分为4组：对照组、内毒素组、氨基胍治疗组(内毒素 氨基胍)、氨基胍组。分别在试验后1、3、5、7、9h每组各宰杀6只。提取血浆(清)，检测血浆(清)中总抗氧化能力(T-AOC)、超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GSH-Px)和谷胱甘肽还原酶(GR)活性以及丙二醛(MDA)含量的变化。结果显示，内毒素血症时总抗氧化能力降低，SOD、GR、GSH-Px的活性降低，MDA含量升高。而在氨基胍治疗组各项指标明显改善。由此表明，肉鸡内毒素血症时存在着明显的脂质过氧化作用，而氨基胍可以明显减轻内毒素所致的自由基诱导的脂质过氧化损伤。     

黄曲霉毒素B1、复方中药和硒对肉鸡肝组织匀浆中自由基代谢的影响

为观察黄曲霉毒素B1(AFB1)对肉鸡肝组织匀浆自由基代谢的变化,并研究复方中药与硒对AFB1的拮抗效应,将10日龄120只试验肉鸡随机分成4组,每组30只,分别为Ⅰ组(对照组)、Ⅱ组(AFB1组:AFB10.2mg/kgBW)、Ⅲ组(AFB10.2mg/kgBW+亚硒酸钠2mgSe/kgDM)和Ⅳ组(AFB10.2mg/kgBW+复方中药20g/kgDM)。分别处理后于17、24、31、38日龄宰杀5只肉鸡,提取肝组织,检测肝组织中的总抗氧化能力(T-AOC)、总超氧化物歧化酶(T-SOD)活性和过氧化氢酶(CAT)及丙二醛(MDA)含量的变化。结果显示,口服AFB1(0.2mg/kgBW)后T-SOD、T-AOC和CAT活性降低(P<0.05),MDA含量明显升高(P<0.05),而复方中药与硒治疗组T-SOD、T-AOC和CAT活性升高(P>0.05或P<0.05),MDA含量明显下降(P>0.05或P<0.05)。证实,由自由基增多而引起的脂质过氧化损伤在肉鸡AFB1慢性中毒发病机理中起着重要的作用,复方中药与硒均可有效降低脂质过氧化造成的损伤。     

氨基胍对内毒素血症肉鸡肝自由基损伤的影响

为了探讨自由基在肉鸡内毒素血症发病机理中的作用,将90只30日龄的肉鸡,公母各半,随机分为生理盐水对照组（A组）、内毒素注射组（B组）和氨基胍治疗组（C组）,每组30只.分别在试验后第1、3、5、7和9 h每组各宰杀6只,提取肝组织,检测肝组织中的总抗氧化能力（T-AOC）、超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶（GSH-Px）和过氧化氢酶（CAT）活性以及丙二醛（MDA）含量的变化.结果显示,内毒素血症时肝组织中SOD、GSH-Px和CAT活性降低,MDA含量明显升高,肝组织中T-AOC下降,而氨基胍治疗组的情况明显好转.证实,由自由基增多而引起的脂质过氧化损伤在肉鸡内毒素血症发病机理中起着重要的作用,氨基胍可有效降低脂质过氧化造成的损伤.     

酵母铬对热应激肉鸡抗氧化性能的影响

本试验旨在研究酵母铬不同添加水平对热应激肉鸡体内抗氧化性能的影响.选用14日龄AA肉仔鸡216只,随机分为6个处理,在基础口粮中分别添加铬0(对照组)、1.0、2.0、3.0、4.0和5.0 mg/kg,每组设3个重复,每重复12只鸡,试验期4周,在热应激条件下测定了28和42日龄肉鸡血清和肝脏组织中抑制羟自由基(·OH)能力、抗超氧阴离子自由基(O2-·)活性、MDA含量、GSH-Px、T-SOD、CAT活性和T-AOC.试验结果表明:3.0、4.0 mg/kg铬添加水平能够显著增强热应激肉鸡血清(28日龄)和肝脏(42日龄)中抑制羟自由基能力(P<0.05),提高血清(28和42日龄)和肝脏组织(42日龄)中抗超氧阴离子自由基活性(P<0.05);减少血清(28和42日龄)和肝脏(28日龄)中MDA生成(P<0.05);显著提高血清(28和42日龄)和肝脏组织(28和42日龄)中GSH-Px活性和T-AOC(P<0.05);极显著提高肝脏组织(28和42日龄)中T-SOD活性(P<0.01);并能提高血清(42日龄)CAT活性(P<0.05).结果显示,日粮添加酵母铬可以提高热应激肉鸡血清和肝脏中抑制羟自由基(·OH)能力、抗超氧阴离子自由基(O2-·)活性,减少MDA生成,并能提高血清和肝脏组织中GSH-Px、T-SOD、CAT活性和T-AOC,日粮中适宜的铬添加水平为3.0 mg/kg. (P<0.05);显著提高血清(28和42日龄)和肝脏组织(28和42日龄)中GSH-Px活性和T-AOC(P<0.05);极显著提高肝脏组织(28和42日龄)中T-SOD活性(P<0.01);并能提高血清(42日龄)CAT活性(P<0.05).结果显示,日粮添加酵母铬可以提高热应激肉鸡血清和肝 中抑制羟自由基(·OH)能力、抗超氧阴离子自由基(O2-·)活性,减少MDA生成,并能提高血清和肝脏组织中GSH-Px、T-SOD、CAT活性和T-AOC,日粮中适宜的铬添加水平为3.0 mg/kg. (P<0.05);显著提高血清(28和42日龄)和肝脏组织(28和42日龄)中GSH-Px活性和T-AOC(P<0.05);极显著提高肝脏组织(28和42日龄)中T-SOD活     

共轭亚油酸对鹅抗氧化功能与脂质过氧化的影响

本文旨在研究不同共轭亚油酸(CLA)添加水平对五龙鹅抗氧化性能与脂质过氧化的影响。选用1日龄五龙鹅192只,随机分为4个处理组,每个处理组48只,设4个重复,每个重复12只。在玉米-豆粕型日粮基础上分别添加CLA(0.0、5.0、15.0和25.0g/kg),以饲喂基础日粮组为对照组,试验期8周,测定并观察其在第2、4、6和8周龄血清中总超氧化物歧化酶(T-SOD)和谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GSH-Px)活性、血清及肝脏组织中脂质过氧化物丙二醛(MDA)含量和总抗氧化能力(T-AOC)等各项指标的变化规律。结果表明:日粮添加5.0g/kgCLA时,能够显著提高鹅血清T-SOD活性(第6、8周龄)和血清(第6周龄)及肝脏组织中(第8周龄)T-AOC(P<0.05);添加15.0g/kgCLA,对鹅血清T-SOD,GSH-Px(第6、8周龄)活性及血清及肝脏T-AOC均有一定提高作用;而当添加水平为25.0g/kg时,对T-SOD,GSH-Px活性和T-AOC均有一定降低作用;不同添加水平CLA均能明显降低血清及肝脏中MDA含量(P<0.05)。本试验条件下,5.0g/kgCLA添加组对于提高和改善鹅的抗氧化功能与脂质过氧化状况效果最佳。     

褪黑素对山羊内毒素血症心肌抗氧化能力的影响

为探讨自由基在山羊内毒素血症发病机理中的作用,将48只山羊随机分为生理盐水对照组、内毒素组、褪黑素保护组、褪黑素组,每组12只.分别在处理后3、6 h每组各宰杀6只制备心肌组织匀浆,检测心肌中的总抗氧化能力(T-AOC)、超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)和过氧化氢酶(CAT)活性以及丙二醛(MDA)含量的变化.结果显示,内毒素血症时山羊心肌中SOD、T-AOC和CAT活性降低,MDA含量明显升高,而褪黑素治疗组则情况明显好转.结果表明,由于自由基的增多而引起的脂质过氧化损伤在山羊内毒素血症发病机理中起着重要的作用,褪黑素可有效拮抗脂质过氧化造成的损伤.     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

Feline intracranial neoplasia: retrospective review of 160 cases (1985-2001)

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.     

A brief history of the prevention of infectious diseases by immunisations

Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.