NPY对LPS诱导的BV-2细胞系iNOS和COX-2表达的影响

通过观察神经肽Y(neuropeptide Y,NPY)对脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide,LPS)诱导的BV-2细胞促炎酶类表达的影响,以期探讨NPY在神经系统炎症的发生发展中的作用。首先利用MTT法检测NPY对BV-2细胞活性的影响,从而确定作用浓度。然后,利用荧光定量PCR和蛋白质印迹法,分别检测NPY对LPS诱导的BV-2细胞中一氧化氮合酶(i NOS)和环氧合酶-2(COX-2)表达的影响。其次,添加NPY受体阻断剂后,观测对NPY效应的影响。结果显示1~1 000 nmol/L的NPY对BV-2无细胞毒作用;NPY预处理1 h后LPS刺激6 h,NPY+LPS组BV-2细胞中i NOS和COX-2 mRNA的表达水平和蛋白的含量显著低于LPS组;BV-2细胞系上检测到Y1受体、Y2受体、Y4受体和Y5受体的存在;加入Y1受体阻断剂后,对样品中i NOS和COX-2 mRNA的表达水平和蛋白的含量进行检测,发现NPY的抑炎作用消失。结果表明,NPY通过作用于Y1受体抑制LPS诱导的促炎酶类表达。     

丹翘液对脂多糖诱导RAW264.7细胞炎症相关因子的抑制效应分析

为研究丹翘液的体外抗炎作用及其抗炎机制,利用LPS诱导巨噬细胞建立炎症模型,MTT法检测不同浓度丹翘液对RAW264.7细胞活力影响;NO测试盒检测丹翘液对LPS诱导的NO释放量的影响;ELISA方法检测丹翘液对LPS诱导的TNF-α、IL-6和PGE2分泌的影响;RT-PCR方法检测丹翘液对LPS诱导的TNF-α、IL-6、COX-2和iNOS基因转录的影响;Western blot检测对细胞核内NF-κB p65蛋白表达的影响。结果显示丹翘液小于700μg·mL-1对细胞无毒性作用;丹翘液各剂量组(100、300、600μg·mL-1)能不同程度地抑制LPS诱导的NO、PGE2、TNF-α和IL-6的分泌;能显著抑制iNOS、COX-2、TNF-α和IL-6基因转录和细胞核内NF-κB p65蛋白表达。丹翘液的抗炎作用机制可能与抑制NF-κB通路激活,进而抑制炎症介质和炎性细胞因子的转录和表达有关。     

紫花地丁总黄酮体外抗炎活性研究

试验研究了紫花地丁总黄酮（TFV）对脂多糖（LPS）诱导的小鼠RAW264.7巨噬细胞活力、细胞中炎症介质含量以及相关基因表达的影响,以期探讨其体外抗炎活性的作用。试验采用MTT法筛选出TFV对小鼠RAW264.7巨噬细胞活力具有促进作用的最佳添加浓度;用酶联免疫吸附法（ELISA）检测了TFV对LPS诱导的小鼠RAW264.7巨噬细胞释放到细胞培养液中NO、肿瘤坏死因子α（TNF-α）、白介素1β（IL-1β）、白介素6（IL-6）含量的影响;运用实时荧光定量PCR法检测了TFV对LPS诱导的炎性小鼠RAW264.7巨噬细胞TNF-α、诱导型一氧化氮合酶（iNOS）和环氧合酶2（COX-2）相对表达水平的影响;研究并分析了TFV的体外抗炎活性。试验结果表明,TFV在5~50 μg/mL浓度范围内能提高小鼠RAW264.7巨噬细胞的活力（P<0.05）;与LPS模型组比较,TFV能显著降低LPS诱导的小鼠RAW264.7巨噬细胞产生NO、TNF-α、IL-6、IL-1β的含量,并能显著降低LPS诱导的小鼠RAW264.7巨噬细胞内TNF-α、COX-2等炎症因子的mRNA表达量（P<0.05）。综上,TFV能显著下调LPS诱导的小鼠RAW264.7巨噬细胞IL-1β、IL-6、TNF-α等细胞因子的释放量和下调TNF-α、COX-2 mRNA的表达量,说明抑制促炎性细胞因子基因的表达可能是实现其抗炎作用的原因之一。     

LPS、poly(i:c)对BV-2小胶质细胞中HMGB1核质穿梭的影响

运用荧光定量PCR方法确定细菌细胞壁的组成成分脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide, LPS)、病毒模拟物聚肌苷酸-聚胞苷酸(poly(i:c))对BV-2小胶质细胞中高迁移率族蛋白B1(HMGB1)核质穿梭影响的最佳作用质量浓度和时间；免疫荧光方法观察BV-2小胶质细胞活化的特异性标志物IBA-1以此确定LPS、poly(i:c)能否激活BV-2小胶质细胞；Western blot方法检测LPS、poly(i:c)诱导BV-2小胶质细胞中促炎细胞因子(IL-1β、TNF-ɑ、NLRP3和iNOS)的蛋白表达量变化；分离细胞核、细胞质蛋白分别检测细胞质和细胞核组分中的HMGB1。结果显示，终质量浓度为10μg/L LPS、50 ng/L poly(i:c)、刺激时长6 h时能够显著增加促炎因子蛋白表达量；免疫荧光结果显示在LPS、poly(i:c)刺激下，BV-2小胶质细胞激活；核质分离结果显示BV-2小胶质细胞被LPS、poly(i:c)刺激后，HMGB1细胞质移位增加。结果表明，细菌或病毒感染都能够使BV-2小胶质细胞内的HMGB1由细胞核向细胞质移位。     

紫花地丁总黄酮体外抗炎活性研究

试验研究了紫花地丁总黄酮(TFV)对脂多糖(LPS)诱导的小鼠RAW264.7巨噬细胞活力、细胞中炎症介质含量以及相关基因表达的影响,以期探讨其体外抗炎活性的作用。试验采用MTT法筛选出TFV对小鼠RAW264.7巨噬细胞活力具有促进作用的最佳添加浓度;用酶联免疫吸附法(ELISA)检测了TFV对LPS诱导的小鼠RAW264.7巨噬细胞释放到细胞培养液中NO、肿瘤坏死因子α(TNF-α)、白介素1β(IL-1β)、白介素6(IL-6)含量的影响;运用实时荧光定量PCR法检测了TFV对LPS诱导的炎性小鼠RAW264.7巨噬细胞TNF-α、诱导型一氧化氮合酶(iNOS)和环氧合酶2(COX-2)相对表达水平的影响;研究并分析了TFV的体外抗炎活性。试验结果表明,TFV在5～50μg/mL浓度范围内能提高小鼠RAW264.7巨噬细胞的活力(P0.05);与LPS模型组比较,TFV能显著降低LPS诱导的小鼠RAW264.7巨噬细胞产生NO、TNF-α、IL-6、IL-1β的含量,并能显著降低LPS诱导的小鼠RAW264.7巨噬细胞内TNF-α、COX-2等炎症因子的mRNA表达量(P0.05)。综上,TFV能显著下调LPS诱导的小鼠RAW264.7巨噬细胞IL-1β、IL-6、TNF-α等细胞因子的释放量和下调TNF-α、COX-2 mRNA的表达量,说明抑制促炎性细胞因子基因的表达可能是实现其抗炎作用的原因之一。     

百里香酚对脂多糖诱导的子宫内膜上皮细胞炎性反应的抑制作用研究

为探究百里香酚治疗子宫内膜炎的抗炎活性,利用脂多糖(LPS)诱导山羊子宫内膜上皮细胞(gEECs)建立炎性模型,以百里香酚进行干预。采用NO试剂盒和酶联免疫吸附试验(ELISA)分别检测百里香酚对LPS诱导的NO和细胞因子分泌的影响;利用实时荧光定量PCR(RT-PCR)检测百里香酚对LPS诱导的IL-1β、TLR4和NF-κB基因转录的影响。结果显示:不同剂量的百里香酚(100、50、25μg·mL~(-1))能不同程度地抑制LPS诱导的炎性模型细胞TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-6、NO和PGE2的分泌,亦可降低炎性模型细胞IL-1β、TLR4和NF-κB的基因转录水平(P0.01)。结果表明,百里香酚可抑制LPS诱导gEECs炎性模型的细胞因子表达水平,具有显著的抗炎活性,其作用机制可能与抑制TLR4/NF-κB信号通路相关。     

长链n-3多不饱和脂肪酸对肠上皮细胞促炎细胞因子基因mRNA表达的影响

本试验旨在探讨长链n-3多不饱和脂肪酸(LC n-3 PUFA)对肠上皮细胞促炎细胞因子基因mRNA表达的影响.试验选用大鼠肠上皮细胞系IEC-6细胞为模型,分为4个处理,分别为对照、脂多糖(LPS,1μg/mL)、LPS(1μg/mL)+二十二碳六烯酸(DHA,100 μmol/L)和LPS(l μg/mL)+二十碳五烯酸(EPA,100μmol/L),每个处理3个重复,每孔为1个重复.细胞先用DHA、EPA或等量二甲基亚砜(DHA和EPA的溶剂,对照)预处理48h,再用LPS处理3h,收集细胞提取总RNA,采用实时定量PCR方法分析肿瘤坏死因子-α(TNF-α)、白介素-1β(IL-1β)和白介素-6(IL-6)的基因mRNA表达水平的差异.结果表明:LPS极显著上调了细胞中TNF-α、IL-1 β和IL-6的基因mRNA表达水平(P＜0.01),EPA均极显著或显著削弱了细胞内LPS诱导的TNF-α(P＜0.01)、IL-1β(P ＜0.01)和IL-6的基因mRNA水平(P＜0.05)的上调,而DHA仅显著削弱了细胞内LPS诱导的IL-1β的基因mRNA水平的上调(P＜0.05).结果提示,LC n-3 PUFA在肠上皮细胞中具有抗炎作用,且在本试验条件下EPA的抗炎效果要优于DHA.     

N-乙酰-半胱氨酸对炎症反应中BV-2细胞的保护作用

为了明确N-乙酰-半胱氨酸(NAC)在LPS诱导的BV-2细胞炎症反应中的保护作用,本研究利用流式细胞术检测细胞活性氧(ROS)、超氧阴离子自由基(O_2~(·-))和线粒体超氧化物(MitoSOX)水平;ELISA和实时荧光定量PCR法检测IL-1β、IL-6和TNF-α表达;脂质氧化产物丙二醛(MDA)试剂盒检测细胞MDA含量;流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡水平。通过对细胞氧化应激、促炎因子表达、脂质损伤和细胞凋亡的检测,探讨NAC对BV-2细胞炎症反应的保护作用。结果显示,LPS可以使BV-2细胞总ROS、O_2~(·-)和MitoSOX的表达显著上升,加入NAC后ROS、O_2~(·-)和MitoSOX的水平又显著下降。LPS可使BV-2细胞IL-1β、IL-6和TNF-α的表达量显著升高,加入NAC后IL-1β、IL-6和TNF-α的表达量显著下降(P0.05)。LPS处理4 h后细胞MDA含量显著增加(P0.05),细胞凋亡水平升高,而加入NAC后MDA含量及细胞凋亡水平显著下降。结果表明,NAC可以抑制LPS引起的BV-2细胞氧化应激,使促炎因子表达减少,同时使BV-2细胞脂质损伤减弱和细胞凋亡水平下降,NAC可对细胞炎症反应中BV-2细胞起到很好的保护作用。     

二氢槲皮素与二氢杨梅素抗炎活性对比研究

构建巨噬细胞验证模型,比较研究二氢槲皮素(Dihydroquercetin,taxifolin,TF)和二氢杨梅素(Dihydromyricetin,DMY)体外抗炎活性。以1 mg/L的脂多糖(LPS)诱导RAW264.7巨噬细胞建立了体外炎症模型;通过细胞毒性试验(MTT)法检测细胞存活率;Griess试剂法测定细胞上清液中NO(一氧化氮)释放量;ELISA法检测上清液中细胞因子IL-1β(白细胞介素-1β)、IL-6(白细胞介素-6)、TNF-α(肿瘤坏死因子α)和PGE2(前列腺素E2)的含量变化;通过RT-PCR法检测IL-1β、IL-6、TNF-α基因表达情况。MTT试验结果表明,二氢槲皮素和二氢杨梅素各剂量组没有表现出对巨噬细胞RAW264.7的细胞毒性。同时,二氢槲皮素高中低剂量组和二氢杨梅素高中低剂量组均能显著抑制脂多糖诱导细胞对NO、PGE2的释放(P0.01),且均表现出剂量依赖性;二氢槲皮素高中低剂量组和二氢杨梅素高中低剂量组均能有效降低IL-1β、IL-6、TNF-α基因的表达,同时能够降低脂多糖诱导细胞产生细胞因子IL-1β、IL-6、TNF-α的含量。二氢槲皮素和二氢杨梅素均具有良好的体外抗炎作用,且二氢槲皮素的抗炎作用较好。     

蒲公英提取物对急性肺损伤小鼠iNOS、COX-2mRNA及NF-kB(p65)蛋白表达的影响

研究蒲公英提取物对急性肺损伤(ALI)小鼠炎症介质NO和PGE2的限速酶iNOS和COX-2 mRNA及核转录因子NF-kB (p65)蛋白表达的影响,初步探讨其对ALI小鼠的保护作用机制.采用逆转录聚合酶链式反应(RT-PCR)法检测iNOS和COX-2的mRNA表达,Western-blot检测NF-kB (p65)的表达.结果表明蒲公英提取物抑制了ALI小鼠肺组织中iNOS、COX-2 mRNA及NF-kB蛋白的表达,分析其对ALI小鼠的保护作用可能通过此途径完成.     

The effect of adenosine on pro-inflammatory cytokine production by porcine T cells

Adenosine is a well described anti-inflammatory modulator of immune responses. The aim of the present study was to describe the role of common adenosine agonist 5'-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine (NECA) in cytokine production by main porcine T cell subpopulations. TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-2 and IL-10 were detected by multicolor flow cytometry together with cell surface markers CD3, CD4 and CD8. It was found that NECA inhibits (in a dose-dependent manner) production of pro-inflammatory TNF-α and Th1-associated cytokines IFN-γ, IL-2 in all concanavalin A-stimulated T cell subpopulations. Moreover, production of IL-10 was potentiated in all T cell subpopulations tested. These corresponded well with the fact that all T cell subsets expressed mRNA for adenosine receptor (AR) subtypes to comparable extents. Contrary to concanavalin A-stimulated cells, NECA had a moderate effect on PMA-stimulated T cells, suggesting that AR in pigs acts via signaling pathways not associated with protein-kinase C. Non-selective antagonist CGS15943 as well as allosteric modulator SCH202676 failed to reverse the effect of NECA in pigs. In conclusion, NECA has an anti-inflammatory effect on porcine T cell subpopulations.     

Exercise-induced alterations in pro-inflammatory cytokines and prostaglandin F2alpha in horses

Using an established standardized exercise test on a high-speed treadmill, thirteen Thoroughbred racehorses were exercised to fatigue (failure); blood samples were obtained before exercise, at failure, and at 2, 6, 24, 48, and 72 h after exercise. The exercise test induced a systemic inflammatory response characterized by a mild transient endotoxemia, leukocytosis, increased leukocyte expression of mRNA for tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), IL-1 beta, and IL-6, and increased circulating concentrations of TNF-alpha and prostaglandin F2 alpha (PGF 2 alpha), with the most pronounced changes being evident at failure and 2h after exercise. Expression of mRNA for IL-6, TNF-alpha, and IL-1 beta was increased by 120-fold, three-fold, and four-fold, respectively, when compared to pre-exercise values. Plasma concentrations of 6-keto-PGF1alpha and PGE2 did not change in response to the exercise test. Collectively, these findings indicate that brief, strenuous exercise induces endotoxemia and a systemic pro-inflammatory response in horses that persists for at least 2h.     

Ganjam virus/Nairobi sheep disease virus induces a pro-inflammatory response in infected sheep

Partly due to climate change, and partly due to changes of human habitat occupation, the impact of tick-borne viruses is increasing. Nairobi sheep disease virus (NSDV) and Ganjam virus (GV) are two names for the same virus, which causes disease in sheep and goats and is currently known to be circulating in India and East Africa. The virus is transmitted by ixodid ticks and causes a severe hemorrhagic disease. We have developed a real-time PCR assay for the virus genome and validated it in a pilot study of the pathogenicity induced by two different isolates of NSDV/GV. One isolate was highly adapted to tissue culture, grew in most cell lines tested, and was essentially apathogenic in sheep. The second isolate appeared to be poorly adapted to cell culture and retained pathogenicity in sheep. The real-time PCR assay for virus easily detected 4 copies or less of the viral genome, and allowed a quantitative measure of the virus in whole blood. Measurement of the changes in cytokine mRNAs showed similar changes to those observed in humans infected by the closely related virus Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever virus.     

Breed-specific pro-inflammatory cytokine production as a predisposing factor for susceptibility to sepsis in the dog

Objective: To determine whether 2 dog breeds with a high risk for parvoviral enteritis, a disease associated with sepsis, produce stronger pro‐inflammatory cytokine responses to a stimulus than dogs with a lower risk. Design: Blinded comparison. Setting: University outpatient clinic. Animals: Healthy, unrelated, purebred Doberman Pinschers (n=10) and Rottweilers (n=9) with age‐matched mixed‐breed dogs (n=7). Interventions: Heparinized, whole‐blood samples were collected from each dog and incubated for 6 hours with lipopolysaccharide. Plasma was collected, and bioassays were used to determine the concentrations of TNF‐α and IL‐6. The mean values obtained from the high‐risk breeds were compared with the mean obtained from the mixed‐breeds. Measurements and main results: The mean TNF‐α production from dogs with a high risk for parvoviral enteritis (1321±161 pg/mL; Doberman Pinscher and Rottweiler) was greater (P<0.05) than that from lower risk, mixed‐breed dogs (674±186 pg/mL). There were no differences in TNF‐α levels between Doberman (1128±247 pg/mL) and Rottweiler (1563±pg/mL) breeds or between any breeds with regard to IL‐6 production. Conclusions: The magnitude of TNF‐α production by peripheral blood monocytes was the greatest in the dogs with breed‐related risk for parvoviral enteritis. However, additional studies are needed to prove a causal relationship between high TNF and predilection for parvoviral enteritis. Regardless, breed appears to be a predisposing factor for variations in cytokine production that could impact the host response to infection and other inflammatory insults.     

Toll-like receptor and pro-inflammatory cytokine expression during prolonged hyperinsulinaemia in horses: Implications for laminitis

Equine laminitis, a disease of the lamellar structure of the horse's hoof, can be incited by numerous factors that include inflammatory and metabolic aetiologies. However, the role of inflammation in hyperinsulinaemic laminitis has not been adequately defined. Toll-like receptor (TLR) activation results in up-regulation of inflammatory pathways and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and may be a pathogenic factor in laminitis. The aim of this study was to determine whether TLR4 expression and subsequent pro-inflammatory cytokine production is increased in lamellae and skeletal muscle during equine hyperinsulinaemia. Standardbred horses were treated with either a prolonged, euglycaemic hyperinsulinaemic clamp (p-EHC) or a prolonged, glucose infusion (p-GI), which induced marked and moderate hyperinsulinaemia, respectively. Age-matched control horses were treated simultaneously with a balanced electrolyte solution. Treated horses developed clinical (p-EHC) or subclinical (p-GI) laminitis, whereas controls did not. Skeletal muscle and lamellar protein extracts were analysed by Western blotting for TLR4, IL-6, TNF-α and suppressor of cytokine signalling 3 (SOCS3) expression. Lamellar protein expression of TLR4 and TNF-α, but not IL-6, was increased by the p-EHC, compared to control horses. A significant positive correlation was found between lamellar TLR4 and SOCS3. Skeletal muscle protein expression of TLR4 signalling parameters did not differ between control and p-EHC-treated horses. Similarly, the p-GI did not result in up-regulation of lamellar protein expression of any parameter. The results suggest that insulin-sensitive tissues may not accurately reflect lamellar pathology during hyperinsulinaemia. While TLR4 is present in the lamellae, its activation appears unlikely to contribute significantly to the developmental pathogenesis of hyperinsulinaemic laminitis. However, inflammation may have a role to play in the later stages (e.g., repair or remodelling) of the disease.     

The effect of recombinant swine interleukin-4 on swine immune cells and on pro-inflammatory cytokine productions in pigs

The in vitro effect and the in vivo influence of recombinant swine IL-4 (rSwIL-4) were characterized in various swine cells and in nursery pigs on LPS-induced endotoxic shock and pro-inflammatory cytokine productions. In in vitro experiment, the rSwIL-4 induced a proliferation of CD4 positive T cells in mitogen-prestimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC). In addition, the rSwIL-4, which was produced from insect cells, promoted the differentiation of monocytes into immature dendritic cells in combination with granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF). Furthermore, the rSwIL-4 successfully suppressed the LPS-induced secretion of TNF-alpha, IL-1alpha, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-18 from swine alveolar macrophages when rSwIL-4 was treated at the same time with LPS. In in vivo experiment in nursery pigs, subcutaneous pretreatment of rSwIL-4, which was produced from baculovirus expression system, enhanced the severity of respiratory failure with endotoxic shock, and increased the production of TNF-alpha and IL-18 in response to inoculation with LPS. These results indicate that the rSwIL-4 is biologically active in both in vitro and in vivo treatments. Depending on the administration time, pro-inflammatory cytokine productions by IL-4 can cause either inhibitory or stimulatory regulation.     

Quantitative analysis of pro-inflammatory cytokine mRNA expression in Theileria annulata-infected cell lines derived from resistant and susceptible cattle

The pathogenic mechanisms involved in tropical theileriosis, caused by the tick-borne protozoan parasite Theileria annulata, are unclear. Pathology is associated with the schizont stage of the parasite, which resides within bovine macrophages. Breed-specific differences in pathology have been observed in cattle, several Bos indicus breeds are relatively resistant to tropical theileriosis whilst Bos taurus cattle are highly susceptible. Infected cells express pro-inflammatory cytokines and it has been hypothesized that these cytokines play a major role in the pathology of the disease. Therefore, using quantitative RT-PCR we investigated the expression of the key candidates, interleukin 1 beta (IL-1beta), IL-6 and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), in T. annulata low passage infected cell lines derived ex vivo from experimental infection of resistant and susceptible cattle. mRNA for each cytokine was detected in all cell lines investigated at levels higher than those observed in resting monocytes. However, the analyses did not identify any breed-specific differences. Therefore, these results are not consistent with the hypothesis that differential regulation of infected cell derived pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1beta, IL-6 and TNF-alpha) accounts for the breed-related differences in resistance and susceptibility to T. annulata infection. Other, currently unknown mechanisms may be of greater importance.     

Investigation of selected biochemical indicators of Equine Rhabdomyolysis in Arabian horses: pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress markers

A total of 30 horses were divided into two groups, one served as a control whereas other was rhabdomyolysis diseased horses. After blood collection, the resulted sera were used for estimation of the activities of creatin kinase (CK), aspartate transaminase (AST), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), lactic acid, triacylglycerol (TAG), glucose, total protein, albumin, globulin, urea, creatinine, Triiodothyronine (T₃), calcium, sodium, potassium, phosphorus, chloride, vitamin E, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis-α (TNF-α). In addition, whole blood was used for determination of selenium, reduced glutathione (G-SH) and prostaglandin F2-α (PGF2α). The erythrocyte hemolysates were used for the determination of the activities of super oxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), nitric oxide (NO) and malondialdehyde (MDA). The present findings revealed a significant (p ≤ 0.05) increase in the values of CK, AST, LDH, glucose, lactate, TAG, urea, creatinine, phosphorus, MDA, TNF- α, IL6 and PGF2- α in diseased horses when compared with the control. Furthermore, the values of calcium, SOD, CAT, TAC, NO and GSH in diseased horses were significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower than the control. The other examined parameters were not statistically significant. In conclusion, the examined pro-inflammatory cytokines were useful biomarkers for the diagnosis of Equine rhabdomyolysis (ER) in Arabian horses beside the old examined biomarkers. In the future, efforts should be made to confirm this in other breed. If this could be achieved, it would open up new perspectives in research fields dealing with ER.