家兔肌肉组织表达外源性生长激素释放因子对增重的影响

用 Wicks法提取 pc DNA- GRF(1～ 32 )质粒并用 DNA Cacu L ator定量 ,同时制备原生质体。将 5 4只家兔随机分为 9组 ,分别注射质粒 pc DNA- GRF(1～ 32 ) 0 .4(用布比卡因处理 )、0 .4(含 10 %甘油 )、0 .4(含 2 5 %蔗糖 )、0 .2、0 .4、0 .6、0 .8mg及空质粒 0 .1mg和原生质体 1m L( ～ 组 )。分别于注射后 0、3、8、14、19、2 4、31d称重 ;于注射后 0、3、8、19、31d采血并分离血清 ,测定血清中 GH浓度 ,用 t检验进行统计学分析。结果表明 ,布比卡因处理组注射后 3d内GH浓度升高 6 5 %(P<0 .0 1) ,平均日增重 2 9g(P<0 .0 5 ) ;注射 0 .8mg组 31d平均日增重较对照组多 34 .6 2 %;注射原生质体组 31d平均日增重较对照组多 40 .5 7%(P<0 .0 5 )。 31d后将家兔屠宰 ,取注射部位肌肉提取 DNA和总RNA,用 PCR和 RT- PCR方法分别检测到了 GRF在肌肉中的存在和表达 ;用 EL ISA方法没能检测到血清中的 GRF抗体。     

生长激素释放因子在CHO细胞的表达

在对生长激素释放因子 (GRF)基因改造和化学合成 ,并构建了其真核表达载体 pc DNA3- GRF(1- 32 )的基础上 ,用 L ipofectin将上述载体转染 CHO细胞进行瞬时表达。提取转染细胞总 RNA,用 RT- PCR和 Dot blotting检测 GRF基因的表达情况 ,用 Western blotting检测转染细胞上清液的表达产物 ,均得到了阳性结果。制备大鼠垂体单层细胞 ,测定表达产物的生物学活性 ,结果表达产物可刺激生长激素释放 ,并且比对照组提高 3.8倍。试验结果表明 ,已构建的真核表达载体 pc DNA3- GRF(1- 32 )能表达出有生物学活性的 GRF。     

生长激素释放因子肝脏定向表达复合物在家兔体内的表达

外源基因在体内的转染及表达存在转染效率低、表达时间短等缺点，利用受体介导基因转移技术，可以将基因定向转入到特定组织，并且能提高转染效率和表达时间。在本试验中，利用肝脏去唾液酸糖蛋白受体(ASGR)将生长激素释放因子(GRF)基因定向转入到家兔肝脏组织并得到了表达。首先通过DNA阻滞试验确定质粒DNA与多聚赖氨酸(poly—L—lysine，PLL)的结合比例及反应液的最佳NaCl浓度，然后将PLL与α—D-吡喃半乳糖苯基异硫氰酸盐(α—D—galactopyranosylphenyl isotlhiocyanate)(物质的量之比为8：1)在pH9．0的Na2CO3溶液中进行糖基化反应，得到糖基化的PLL(galPLL)后透析除去未反应的糖并测定反应物糖含量。将糖基化的PLL与克隆有GRF基因的pcDNA3-GRF质粒(质量比为3．16：1)在1．031mol／L的NaCl溶液中进行连接，最终得到DNA—galPLL复合物，电镜观察其结构。耳缘静脉注射质粒复合物到家兔体内(1．5mg／只)，用RT—PCR和ELISA检测不同组织的表达情况。结果注射后7d家兔的肝脏RT—PCR结果呈阳性，27d仍能检测到GRF蛋白，但同时在其他的组织也检测到表达。并且进行了增重试验，发现定向转移GRF基因到家兔的肝脏对家兔的生长有一定的促进作用。     

注射pGRF基因质粒对猪血清生长轴激素变化规律的影响

本研究旨在探讨注射pGRF基因质粒在猪体内的表达效应及作用规律.试验选择8头体质量相近((15 0.43)kg)的健康长白×大白二元杂交阉公猪,随机分成2组.试验组颈部肌肉注射含4.5 mg pGRF基因质粒的注射液2 mL,对照组注射生理盐水2 mL.于处理后第1、4、7、11、16、21、26、31天空腹采血样制备血清,测定血清中生长激素(GH)、类胰岛素生长因子(IGF-I)、生长激素释放因子(GRF)、生长抑素(SS)的含量.结果表明:试验组在注射pGRF基因质粒后第7天,血清GH含量达峰值,比对照组高了113.47%,差异极显著(P<0.01);然后逐渐下降.到第11天时,比对照组高47.09%,差异显著(P<0.05).到第31天时,与对照组基本一致.试验组血清IGF-I和GRF含量虽然提高幅度不大,但其变化与GH含量存在着显著相关性,均在注射pGRF基因质粒后第7天达到峰值,然后降至对照组水平,其相关系数分别为0.589(P<0.05)和0.678(P<0.05).与对照组相比,试验组血清SS含量在11 d前一直呈下降趋势,第11天时降至最低点,但差异不显著.到第16天时2组均有所上升,21 d后缓慢下降,第31天时与对照组趋于一致.血清SS含量与GH、GRF的含量分别存在显著和极显著负相关,相关系数分别为-0.689(P<0.05)和-0.777(P<0.01).由此可见,pGRF基因质粒在体内快速表达并作用于机体,主要通过提高GRF的含量而促使GH的分泌,同时抑制SS的分泌,一定程度阻止其对GRF和GH的抑制作用,从而达到有效的促生长作用.同时本试验发现,虽然采用了颈静脉导管方法,猪血液中生长轴激素测定值变异仍较大,加强护理和增加测试猪的数量是取得更为客观结果的必要条件.     

原生质体介导的外源性GRF基因对小鼠增重的研究

生长激素释放因子 (GRF)是由动物下丘脑合成并分泌的一种多肽激素 ,能特异性的诱导生长激素的合成与分泌 ,提高体内生长激素的水平 ,从而促进动物的生长。本实验是将含GRF重组质粒的 JM1 0 9菌株大量培养 ,制备原生质体 (所含质粒进行定量 ) ,用 1 0 m L / L的戊二醛处理后 ,注射于小鼠后肢胫骨部肌肉 ,给予电刺激。与含有 GRF基因的裸质粒注射组对比观察对小鼠增长的影响。研究结果表明 :原生质体能够与小鼠肌肉细胞融合 ,同时 ,以原生质体介导的外源性 GRF基因可以提高小鼠的增长速度 ,其效果与裸质粒无显著差别。 1 0 0 V,50ms的低压、短脉冲电刺激对 GRF在动物体内的表达量上无显著差异     

肌注猪促生长激素释放因子(pGRF)基因质粒后猪神经内分泌生长轴激素的变化规律

试验探讨pGRF基因质粒在猪体内的表达效应及作用机理。将10头体重相近([15.24±0.53)kg]、遗传基础相似的健康杜×长×大三元杂交阉公猪安装颈静脉血导管,随机分成2组。试验开始时,试验组每头猪左侧臀部肌肉注射4.5mgpGRF基因质粒,第30d时,试验组每头猪右侧臀部肌肉注射相同剂量pGRF基因质粒,对照组两次分别注射2ml生理盐水。测定采样血浆中GRF、SS、GH及IGF-I的浓度。结果表明:①第一次注射pGRF基因质粒8d时,试验组GH的水平较对照组有显著提高(P<0.05),第12dGH水平达最高,为对照组的157%(P<0.01);第8、12、17、22d的IGF-I水平分别为对照组的185%(P<0.01)、237%(P<0.01)、200%(P<0.01)、131%(P<0.05);第12d试验组的SS水平较对照组有明显下降(P<0.05),其余时间无明显变化;GRF的水平在第12d分泌量达到最高,为对照组的143%(P<0.01),17d为对照组的133%(P<0.05),此后逐步下降又上升,与对照组的水平差异不显著。②在此试验条件下,基因质粒在5～8d开始缓释表达,12d左右达到表达高峰,其有效剂量持续时间在20d以上。③第二次注射基因质粒后,试验组第33d以后GH的水平逐渐升高,到45dGH水平达到峰值,为对照组的144%(P<0.05);第39、45、60d的IGF-I水平分别为对照组的166%(P<0.05)、173%(P<0.05)、117%(P<0.05);GRF的水平在45d分泌量达到最高,为对照组的138%(P<0.05),其余时间无明显变化;SS水平较对照组无显著差异。④相关分析表明:注射基因质粒后,试验组GH与GRF的相关系数为0.81(P<0.01),与SS的相关系数为-0.65(P>0.05);GH、GRF与IGF-I存在着正相关,SS与IGF-I存在负相关性,除GH与IGF-I的相关系数为0.67,达到显著正相关水平(P<0.05),其余指标与IGF-I均未有显著相关。     

仔猪骨骼肌注射pGRF基因质粒的促生长及代谢调控效应研究

给体重约 5 0kg的长白×太湖仔猪以 0 2 5、0 5、1 0、2 0mg剂量半腱肌部位注射 pGRF基因的表达质粒 ,5～ 10kg阶段终体重分别比 0mg组增加 4%、17%、2 0 %和 16 % ,日增重增加 8%、37%、43%和 36 % ,采食量提高 17%、2 7%、2 3 %和 11% ;耗料增重比 ,0 5mg组、1 0mg组及 2 0mg组分别比 0mg组降低 8%、14%和 18%。1 0mgpGRF基因质粒使血液中生长激素释放因子 (GRF)比对照组升高 1 6倍 (P <0 0 5 )、生长激素 (GH)升高2 5倍 (P <0 0 1)、类胰岛素生长因子 (IGF Ⅰ )升高 2 3倍 (P <0 0 1) ,血液中尿素浓度降低 2 0 % (P <0 0 5 ) ,血液中甘油三酯浓度 (TG)明显下降 (P <0 0 5 )。试验研究还证明生长抑素 (SS)分泌的增加是限制 pGRF基因质粒高用量时正效应发挥的重要因素 ,1mg为 5～ 10kg阶段仔猪注射 pGRF基因质粒的适宜剂量。     

活体电穿孔方法提高外源GRF基因在小鼠肌肉组织中的表达

向小鼠后肢小腿肌注pGRF表达质粒并加以电穿孔条件,注射剂量分别为5,10,50μg,于注射前及注射后10,20,30d测体质量,并采血分离血清测血清GRF水平。结果显示,5μgpGRF质粒电穿孔组注射后10dGRF分别比对照组、5μgpGRF质粒组升高44.73%(P0.05),12.86%(P0.05);血清中GRF水平升高。30d累积增重,5μgpGRF质粒电穿孔组分别比对照组、5μgpGRF质粒组高11.46%,6.75%(P0.05);10μgpGRF质粒组分别比对照组和10μgpGRF质粒电穿孔组高19.52%(P0.05),19.42%(P0.05)。50μgpGRF质粒组45d累积增重分别比对照组、pGRF质粒电穿孔组高14.00%,12.00%(P0.05)。结果表明,电穿孔处理可提高GRF基因在小鼠肌肉中的表达。     

不同转染介质对狂犬病病毒糖蛋白基因免疫的效应

将狂犬病病毒糖蛋白 ( RGP) c DNA Bgl 片段 ( 1 .6 7kb)分别克隆进质粒 p GFP-Cl、p SV2 -dhfr和pc DNA3 ,构建了重组质粒 p GFP-C1 -RGP、p SV2 -RGP和 pc DNA3 -RGP,通过脂质体和聚乙烯亚胺 ( PEI)包裹后分别转染 BHK-2 1细胞和乳鼠脑内接种 ,3种重组质粒均能表达出 RGP。表达水平高低依次为 p GFP-C1 -RGP>pc DNA3 -RGP>p SV2 -RGP。 3种重组质粒分别以全裸质粒、质粒 -脂质体、质粒 -PEI形式 ,经骨骼肌免疫小鼠 ,间接 ELISA检测。结果显示 ,免疫鼠血清中特异性抗体水平明显高于对照组 ;80 %免疫小鼠能抵抗狂犬病病毒强毒的攻击。全裸质粒免疫诱生的抗体水平同其剂量相关 ;而以 PEI或脂质体作为转染介质、质粒接种量超过 2 0μg时 ,诱生抗体水平不再随质粒剂量增大而显著变化。质粒免疫后 1 50 d采用 PCR仍然能从注射部位检测到 RGP基因的存在     

人血清白蛋白基因乳腺表达载体在奶山羊乳腺中的瞬间表达

构建了包括人血清白蛋白 ( h ALB)基因的 c DNA全序列、内含子 1以及山羊β-酪蛋白基因启动子和 5′端上游调控序列在内的乳腺表达载体 pc DNA3.1 -GCALBm,采用直接注射法将其导入哺乳期的奶山羊乳腺组织 ,然后通过放射免疫法测定乳汁中 h ALB的含量。结果显示 ,5头受试奶山羊的乳汁中有明显的 h ALB表达 ,注射后第 2天放免测定值从注射前的 4 .0 mg/L左右分别上升至 62 .2、59.2、36.2、4 2 .3、1 7.5mg/L,并持续表达在 2周以上 ,其中 1头受试羊乳汁中 h ALB的表达量维持在 80 mg/L左右 ,并超过了 1 0 0 d。而在乳腺组织中注射 pc DNA3.1空质粒或生理盐水的 4头对照奶山羊的乳汁中 ,放免测定值无变化。     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Internal Parasites and Haematological Values in Cattle Slaughtered in Buea Subdivision of Cameroon

Tropical Animal Health and Production -     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Chemotaxis of macrophage in inflammation

Our particular attention in this article was given to natural mediators for macrophages isolated from the sites of tissue injury. A number of chemotactic factors, which may satisfy many criteria making them acceptable as inflammatory leucocyte chemotactic factors, has been separated. Among them, our laboratory has isolated three macrophage (monocyte) chemotactic factors (MCF-a, -b and -c). Their purification, characterization and functional specificity are discussed.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Changes in proportion of canine urinary calculi composed of calcium oxalate or struvite in specimens analyzed from 1981 through 2001

The objective of this report was to characterize 20-year changes in proportion of calcium oxalate (CaOx) calculi and struvite calculi in dogs, and associations with breed, age, and sex. In this retrospective study, results of analysis of urinary calculi from dogs were reviewed for specimens received between July 1, 1981, and December 31, 2001. Breed, sex, age, year of submission of the specimen, and mineral type(s) were analyzed statistically. CaOx or Struvite or both were contained in 18,966 of 20,884 (91%) specimens. For both sexes, a 20-year statistically significant increase was observed in the proportion of calculus specimens that contained CaOx. The increase in this proportion was greater in females (1% to 31%) than in males (18% to 82%). From 1998 to 2001, when proportions may have plateaued, the odds of specimens containing CaOx were markedly higher in 18 breeds, markedly lower in 5 breeds, and not significantly different in 13 breeds compared with crossbreds. For both sexes, a 20-year statistically significant decrease was observed in the proportion of calculus specimens that contained struvite. This decrease in proportion was greater for males (79-16%) than for females (97-68%). From 1998 to 2001, when proportions plateaued, the odds of calculi containing struvite were markedly lower in 20 breeds, markedly higher in 1 breed, and not significantly different in 15 breeds when compared with crossbreds. Breed, age, and sex were associated statistically with CaOx or struvite urolithiasis. In conclusion, there appears to have been a long-term increase in the proportion of specimens of canine urinary calculi that contain CaOx as well as a long-term decrease in the proportion of specimens of calculi that contain struvite for both male and female dogs. The rate of change appeared to begin leveling off in the period 1998 to 2001. The recent proportion of dogs with either CaOx- or struvite-associated urolithiasis may depend on breed, age, and sex, and on interactions among these 3 factors.     

Smart Phone Assisted City-scale Wireless Sensor Network Deployment for Transportation System Monitoring

<正>1.INTRODUCTION Ensuring transportation network security is one Of the most daunting challenges confronting homeland security agencies today.Significant research has been dedicated.To model and analyze the vulnerability of transportation systems,while notably fewer studies propose specific strategies for deploying defensive technologies to safeguard these systems.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.