苹果轮纹病菌对吡唑醚菌酯的敏感性及Cytb基因序列分析

为了明确苹果轮纹病菌Botryosphaeria dothidea对吡唑醚菌酯的敏感性和吡唑醚菌酯的靶标基因序列, 采用菌丝生长速率法测定了水杨肟酸对B. dothidea 菌丝生长的作用, 探讨了添加或不添加水杨肟酸的情况下病原菌对吡唑醚菌酯敏感性的变化; 并测定了不同产区的80株B. dothidea 对吡唑醚菌酯的敏感性以及440株B. dothidea 对吡唑醚菌酯的抗性; 然后, 扩增并分析了具有不同敏感性的菌株的细胞色素b基因 (Cytb) 序列?结果表明:不同浓度水杨肟酸对菌丝生长的抑制作用不同?添加40 μg/mL水杨肟酸不影响吡唑醚菌酯的EC50?菌株的敏感性频率符合近似正态分布, 各产区菌株对吡唑醚菌酯的敏感性没有显著差异, 吡唑醚菌酯平均EC50为(2.95±2.11) μg/mL, 没有检测到抗性菌株?靶标基因序列分析表明, Cytb基因在F129?G137和G143位密码子上没有产生点突变, 首次发现在143位密码子后有内含子插入?     

烟草赤星病菌对嘧菌酯抗性突变体的诱导及其生物学特性

为评价烟草赤星病致病菌链格孢Alternaria alternata对嘧菌酯的抗性风险，以敏感菌株J6为试材，通过菌丝药剂驯化和分生孢子紫外诱变诱导抗性突变体，并对抗性突变体的生物学特性进行了研究，同时对抗性突变体与敏感菌株线粒体的细胞色素b基因 (cyt b) cDNA序列全长进行了测序分析。结果表明:经药剂驯化未获得抗性突变体，而紫外诱变共获得7株抗性突变体，突变频率约为0.007%，抗性水平分别为5.27、8.28、25.28、12.82、6.14、9.28和52.91倍。适合度研究表明，抗性突变体与敏感菌株的分生孢子萌发能力及致病力相当，但分生孢子产生量均高于敏感菌株，菌丝生长速率除突变体6-1外均快于敏感菌株。cyt b基因cDNA序列分析表明:有4株抗性突变体在不同位点上发生了核苷酸突变，其中突变体6-7 cyt b的249位和871位碱基由T突变为C，但其编码的氨基酸未发生突变；突变体6-8 cyt b的734位碱基由T突变为C，引起所编码的245位丙氨酸突变为缬氨酸 (V245A)；突变体6-9 cyt b的510位碱基由T突变为A，所编码的170位由精氨酸替代了丝氨酸 (S170R)；突变体6-11 cyt b的732位碱基由T突变为A，所编码的244位由苯丙氨酸替代了亮氨酸 (L244F)，其776位碱基由T突变为C，所编码的259位由丙氨酸替代了缬氨酸（V259A），其1 156位碱基由A突变为G，所编码的氨基酸未发生变化。研究结果初步表明，烟草赤星病菌对嘧菌酯存在潜在的抗药性风险，其cyt b基因的点突变与其对嘧菌酯的抗药性有关。     

江西省番茄绵疫病菌对嘧菌酯的敏感性检测及抗性风险分析

为明确番茄绵疫病菌对嘧菌酯的敏感性，采用菌丝生长速率法测定了2018—2019年从江西省番茄主产区采集分离得到的58株绵疫病菌Phytophthora capsici对嘧菌酯的敏感性，并以敏感菌株YD5为亲本，通过紫外线诱导获得了4株抗性突变体，研究了突变体的生物学性状；进而采用菌丝生长速率法测定了敏感菌株YD5及其4个抗性突变体对烯酰吗啉和甲霜灵的EC₅₀值，分析嘧菌酯与烯酰吗啉和甲霜灵是否存在交互抗性。结果表明:嘧菌酯对绵疫病菌菌丝生长有较强的抑制作用，其对58个绵疫病菌的EC₅₀值介于0.1867~1.6239 μg/mL之间，平均EC₅₀值为 (0.8606±0.3318) μg/mL，58个菌株对嘧菌酯的敏感性频率分布呈正态分布，表明番茄绵疫病菌对嘧菌酯仍然较为敏感。通过紫外线诱导获得4个抗性突变体，突变体的抗药性能够稳定遗传，且在致病力与游动孢子萌发率方面与亲本菌株无显著差异，产孢量较亲本菌株显著下降。嘧菌酯与烯酰吗啉和甲霜灵之间均不存在交互抗药性。研究表明，番茄绵疫病菌对嘧菌酯具有中等抗性风险，一旦田间出现抗性菌株，应立即采取措施控制菌群的转移扩散。同时，需加强番茄绵疫病菌对嘧菌酯的田间抗性监测，在生产过程中轮用或混用不同作用机制的药剂，以避免或延缓抗药性的发展。     

北京地区草坪草夏季斑枯病菌对嘧菌酯的敏感性及其Cytb序列分析

采用菌丝生长速率法,测定了水杨肟酸 (SHAM) 对草坪草夏季斑枯病菌Magnaporthe poae菌丝生长及其对嘧菌酯敏感性的影响,并在此基础上测定了采自北京地区的114株夏季斑枯病菌对嘧菌酯的敏感性;扩增并分析了夏季斑枯病菌细胞色素b基因 (Cytb) 部分序列,以期探寻该病原菌对嘧菌酯敏感性下降的分子机制。结果显示:不同浓度SHAM对菌丝生长的抑制作用差异显著 (F = 20.812,P < 0.000 1);添加SHAM (40 μg/mL) 与否,嘧菌酯对菌丝生长的抑制中浓度 (EC₅₀) 无显著差异 (F = 0.041 0,P = 0.842 3)。嘧菌酯对供试114株菌株的EC₅₀值范围为0.001 0~0.146 5 μg/mL,平均值为 (0.017 4 ± 0.026 1) μg/mL。供试夏季斑枯病菌对嘧菌酯的敏感性频率不符合正态性分布 (W = 0.499 7, P < 0.05),表明群体中已出现对嘧菌酯敏感性下降的亚群体;连续单峰频次分布为70.18%的菌株 (W = 0.970 8,P = 0.064 0 > 0.05) 的平均EC₅₀值为 (0.007 8 ± 0.003 7) μg/mL,该值可作为夏季斑枯病菌对嘧菌酯的相对敏感性基线。比对分析获得夏季斑枯病菌Cytb的部分序列 (8 639 bp),进一步扩增发现对嘧菌酯敏感性存在差异的12株菌株均在该序列上紧临143位密码子处插入了一段长1 956 bp的内含子,且在Cytb的129、137和143位密码子上未出现与抗性相关的点突变。上述结果可为草坪草夏季斑枯病的有效防治提供依据,同时可为深入探寻病原菌对甲氧基丙烯酸酯类 (QoIs) 杀菌剂敏感性下降的分子机制提供参考。     

草莓灰霉病菌对嘧菌酯的抗性检测及抗性菌株的生物学特性研究

由灰葡萄孢(Botrytis cinerea Pers.)引起的草莓灰霉病是严重危害草莓的病害之一。为了解草莓灰霉病菌对杀菌剂嘧菌酯的抗性情况,本研究针对2012年从国内10省市采集和分离的134株草莓灰霉病菌菌株,利用特异性引物BcAR-F/BcAR-R扩增其cytb基因的部分序列,进行了嘧菌酯抗性的分子检测;对检测出的抗性菌株在嘧菌酯浓度分别为22.4、112和224μg·mL~(-1)的含药培养基上进行抗性验证;此外,还比较了抗性菌株与敏感菌株主要生物学性状的差异。结果表明,有54个菌株对嘧菌酯表现抗性,均属于中等抗性水平,占检测总数的40.3%,分布于北京市、湖北、江苏、河北、辽宁和四川各省;对15个抗性菌株cytb基因的序列分析表明,其第143位发生突变,由甘氨酸变为丙氨酸;对随机选取的4株抗性菌株和2株敏感菌株的适合度测定结果发现,抗性菌株和敏感菌株在最适生长温度、菌落生长速度、孢子萌发率方面没有表现出规律性差异,但抗性菌株的产孢量和致病力均显著低于敏感菌株。     

抗苯醚菌酯(ZJ0712)小麦白粉病菌突变体的诱导及其生物学特性

经过药剂驯化10代后,从对苯醚菌酯(ZJ0712)敏感的小麦白粉病菌Blumeria graminis f.sp.tritici 3个菌株中获得3个抗药突变体,突变体的抗性指数均大于80,且其抗性能够通过无性繁殖稳定遗传。室内接种试验发现,突变体的致病力与亲本菌株无明显差异。细胞色素b (cyt b)基因片段序列分析发现,突变体cyt b基因的第143位密码子均由敏感菌株的GGT(丙氨酸)突变成了GCT(甘氨酸)。研究结果表明,小麦白粉病菌对苯醚菌酯存在较高的抗性风险,该药剂在使用过程中需注意采取相应的抗性治理措施,以延缓抗性发生。     

辽宁省蔬菜灰霉病菌对嘧霉胺的抗药性

2006年从辽宁省不同地区采集蔬菜灰霉病果或病叶,经分离共获得灰霉病菌株86株。采用菌丝生长速率法测定了其对嘧霉胺的敏感性。试验结果表明,灰霉病菌对嘧霉胺产生中等水平抗药性,抗性频率为17.41%。经紫外、药剂联合诱导获得了高抗菌株,抗性倍数最高达62.78倍。嘧霉胺与多菌灵和腐霉利间不存在交互抗药性,苯胺基嘧啶类杀菌剂之间存在交互抗性。野生抗性菌株具有较好的遗传稳定性,连续转接9次后抗药性无明显下降。不同菌株的菌丝生长速度、鲜重和产孢量存在明显差异,但该差异与灰霉病菌对嘧霉胺的敏感性无相关性。     

福建省番茄灰霉病菌对氟啶胺敏感基线建立及与不同杀菌剂的交互抗性

为明确中国福建省番茄灰霉病菌对氟啶胺的敏感性及其与不同杀菌剂的交互抗性,采用菌丝生长速率法测定了106株采自福建省主要番茄产区的番茄灰霉病菌对氟啶胺的敏感性。结果表明,氟啶胺对福建省番茄灰霉病菌菌丝生长的EC50值在0.0037～0.0452 μg/mL之间,平均值为（0.0221 ±0.0098）μg/mL,其敏感性频率分布呈连续单峰曲线,符合正态分布,因此可将该EC50平均值（0.0221±0.0098）μg/mL作为福建省番茄灰霉病菌对氟啶胺的敏感基线,用于其田间抗药性监测。从106株菌株中选择15株对氟啶胺敏感性不同的菌株,测定了其对嘧霉胺、异菌脲、腐霉利和啶氧菌酯的敏感性。结果表明,供试5种杀菌剂对15株番茄灰霉病菌菌丝生长的平均抑制活性依次为氟啶胺 >异菌脲 >腐霉利 >啶氧菌酯 >嘧霉胺,氟啶胺与异菌脲、腐霉利、啶氧菌酯和嘧霉胺之间均不存在交互抗性。     

番茄灰霉病菌对嘧霉胺的抗药性

2001年从辽宁省不同地区的保护地中采集番茄灰霉病果或病叶，经单孢分离共获得番茄灰霉病菌70株。采用菌丝生长速率法测定了其对嘧霉胺的敏感性。结果表明，番茄灰霉病菌已对嘧霉胺产生中等水平抗药性，抗性频率为20．0％。经室内药剂诱导获得了高抗菌株，抗性倍数最高达35．7倍。嘧霉胺与多菌灵及嘧霉胺与速克灵间不存在交互抗药性。野生抗性菌株具有较好的遗传稳定性，连续转接9次后抗药性无明显下降。不同菌株的菌丝生长速度、鲜重和渗透敏感性存在显著差异，但该差异与灰霉病菌对嘧霉胺的敏感性无相关性。抗性菌株与敏感菌株具有同样的致病能力。     

樱桃采后灰霉病菌对甲基硫菌灵、乙霉威和腐霉利的抗性

本文采用单孢分离法对四川汉源和山东烟台等地采集的樱桃果实进行了采后灰霉病的病原菌分离和鉴定;采用区分剂量法分别测定了菌株对苯并咪唑类杀菌剂甲基硫菌灵、乙霉威和二甲酰亚胺类杀菌剂腐霉利的敏感性,并进一步分析了抗药性菌株的分子机制。结果表明,分离得到的54株樱桃采后灰霉病菌均为灰葡萄孢Botrytis cinerea,对甲基硫菌灵的总抗性频率高达79.6%,其中甲基硫菌灵抗性-乙霉威敏感 (BEN R1) 菌株频率为 25.9%;甲基硫菌灵-乙霉威双重抗性菌株 (BEN R2) 频率为53.7%;检测到腐霉利抗性菌株 (DCF R) 9 株,频率为16.7%。甲基硫菌灵抗性菌株在β-tubulin基因上的突变共有2种类型: BEN R1抗性菌株中,第198位密码子发生点突变 (GAG→GCG),编码氨基酸由Glu (E)突变成缬氨酸Ala (A);在BEN R2抗性菌株中,第198位密码子发生点突变 (GAG→GTG),编码氨基酸由Glu (E)突变成缬氨酸Val (V)。DCF R菌株在BcOS1的第365位密码子由ATC突变成AAC或AGC,导致编码的氨基酸由异亮氨酸Ile (I)突变成天冬酰胺Asn (N)或丝氨酸Ser (S)。本研究表明樱桃采后灰霉病菌对甲基硫菌灵和腐霉利存在不同程度抗性,应在加强抗药性监测的同时与其他类型杀菌剂交替使用,延缓抗药性发展。     

Molecular characterization of pyraclostrobin resistance and structural diversity of the cytochrome b gene in Botrytis cinerea from apple

Botrytis cinerea isolates obtained from apple orchards were screened for resistance to the quinone outside inhibitor (QoI) pyraclostrobin. Of the 220 isolates tested, 43 (19.5%) were resistant to pyraclostrobin. Analysis of partial sequences of the cytochrome b gene (cyt b) in five pyraclostrobin-resistant (PR) and five pyraclostrobin-sensitive (PS) isolates showed that PR isolates harbored the point mutation leading to the substitution of glycine by alanine at codon position 143 in cyt b (G143A). Two pairs of allele-specific primers were designed based on this point mutation, and allele-specific polymerase chain reaction analysis with these primers showed that all 73 PR isolates (including 30 collected from decayed apple fruit) harbored the G143A mutation but PS isolates did not. Six pairs of primers were designed to analyze the presence of various introns in cyt b. There were six types (I to VI) of cyt b present in 247 isolates of B. cinerea collected from various apple-production areas in Washington State. Of the 247 isolates, 23 had type I cyt b containing all four introns (Bcbi-67/68, Bcbi-131/132, Bcbi-143/144, and Bcbi-164), 176 had type II cyt b containing three introns (Bcbi-67/68, Bcbi-131/132, and Bcbi-164), six had type III cyt b containing two introns (Bcbi-67/68 and Bcbi-131/132), one had type IV cyt b containing two introns (Bcbi-131/132 and Bcbi-164), one had type V cyt b containing only the Bcbi-131/132 intron, and 40 had type VI cyt b containing no introns. This is the first report of types III to VI cyt b present in B. cinerea. All 73 PR isolates did not carry the Bcbi-143/144 intron in cyt b. Of the 247 isolates tested, >90% did not carry the Bcbi-143/144 intron in cyt b, suggesting that B. cinerea populations from apple pose a high inherent risk for the development of resistance to QoIs because the presence of this intron in cyt b prevents the occurrence of G143A-mediated resistance. Analysis of genetic background based on three microsatellite primers showed that PR isolates originated from different lineages, and there was no correlation between cyt b types (I, II, and III) and the genetic background of the isolates; however, isolates carrying type VI cyt b might originate from the same lineage.     

灰葡萄孢对氟唑菌酰羟胺不同敏感型菌株的生物学特性

为明确灰葡萄孢对氟唑菌酰羟胺不同敏感型菌株的生物学特性差异,将9个不同敏感型菌株在无药PDA平板上继代培养10代后,测定其对氟唑菌酰羟胺的敏感性。采用菌丝生长速率法分别在PDA平板和离体叶片上测定了其菌丝生长速率、产孢量、孢子萌发率和致病性,以及其对温度、pH值和葡萄糖的敏感性,并对其编码琥珀酸脱氢酶的SdhA、SdhB、SdhC和SdhD 4个亚基基因进行了克隆与测序。结果显示:从田间获得的2个低抗菌株、2个中抗菌株和2个高抗菌株对氟唑菌酰羟胺的敏感性变异指数在0.60~1.15之间,而通过室内药剂驯化获得的高抗菌株BLH5F对氟唑菌酰羟胺的敏感性变异指数为0.23;除低抗菌株WP8的菌丝生长速率显著低于2个敏感菌株,以及中抗菌株WP6和高抗菌株WPE9的产孢量显著低于2个敏感菌株外,其余各抗性菌株在菌丝生长速率、产孢量、孢子萌发率和致病性方面均无显著差异。整体而言,7个抗性菌株在对温度、pH值和葡萄糖的敏感性方面与敏感菌株无显著差异。基因克隆及测序结果表明,室内药剂驯化获得的高抗菌株BLH5F SdhB基因的272位由组氨酸变为了精氨酸 (H272R),田间获得的低抗、中抗和高抗各2个菌株均为SdhB基因的225位由脯氨酸变为了亮氨酸 (P225L)。综合分析表明,灰葡萄孢对氟唑菌酰羟胺不同敏感型菌株具有相似的适合度。因此,推测在药剂的选择压下,抗氟唑菌酰羟胺的灰葡萄孢菌株在田间容易形成优势种群。     

Characterization of QoI resistance in Botrytis cinerea and identification of two types of mitochondrial cytochrome b gene

Botrytis cinerea field isolates collected in Japan were screened for resistance to Qo inhibitor fungicides (QoIs). Of the 198 isolates screened, six grew well on a medium containing azoxystrobin, a QoI, when salicylhydroxamic acid, an alternative oxidase inhibitor, was present. The resistance mutation in the cytochrome b gene ( cytb ) was characterized. All QoI-resistant isolates had the same mutation (GGT to G C T) in cytb that led to the substitution of glycine by alanine at position 143 of cytochrome b , which is known to confer QoI resistance in plant pathogens. To detect this mutation, a hybridization probe assay based on real-time PCR amplification and melting curve analysis was developed. Using DNA samples prepared from aubergines coinfected with QoI-resistant and QoI-sensitive B. cinerea isolates, two similar peak profiles with their corresponding melting temperatures were obtained. This result suggests that QoI-resistant and QoI-sensitive isolates may compete equally in terms of pathogenicity, and the assay may be used to assess the population ratio of mutant and wild-type isolates. However, the hybridization probe did not anneal to PCR products derived from the DNA samples of some QoI-sensitive isolates. Structural analysis of cytb revealed that B. cinerea field isolates could be classified into two groups: one with three introns and the other with an additional intron (Bcbi-143/144 intron) inserted between the 143rd and 144th codons. All 88 isolates possessing the Bcbi-143/144 intron were azoxystrobin-sensitive, suggesting that the QoI-resistant mutation at codon 143 in cytb prevents self-splicing of the Bcbi-143/144 intron, as proposed in some other plant pathogens.     

番茄灰霉病菌对腐霉利的抗药性检测及生物学性状研究

采用区分剂量法,检测了来自福建省、上海市、辽宁省和内蒙古自治区不同采样点的番茄灰霉病菌Botrytis cinerea对腐霉利的抗性频率;选取未施药地区的敏感菌株,建立了灰霉病菌对腐霉利的敏感基线;比较了常年施药地区与未施药地区灰霉病菌的抗性频率差异,测定了施药10年以上地区番茄灰霉病菌的抗性指数;研究比较了抗、感菌株的生物学性状。结果表明:腐霉利对127株敏感菌株的平均EC50值为(0.31±0.08) μg/mL;供试4省市灰霉病菌对腐霉利均表现出了很高的抗性频率,其中内蒙古自治区和辽宁省采样点的抗性菌株频率高于90%;在施药历史超过10年的215株田间菌株中,抗性水平最高的菌株来自辽宁省,抗性指数为44.3;施药地区灰霉病菌的抗性频率均高于未施药地区;抗性菌株的抗药性可稳定遗传;供试11株抗性和敏感菌株在产孢量和孢子萌发率、菌丝生长速率、活体致病力等生物学性状方面的差异与其抗性水平之间无明显相关性。     

Shift of sensitivity of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Botrytis cinerea</Emphasis> to azoxystrobin in greenhouse vegetables before and after exposure to the fungicide

From 2004 to 2006, 213 isolates of Botrytis cinerea never exposed to Q_O center inhibitors (Q_OIs) were collected to determine the baseline sensitivity to azoxystrobin. In the absence of salicylhydroxamic acid (SHAM), the mean EC₅₀ values were 10.49 ± 13.12 and 0.36 ± 0.48 mg l⁻¹ for inhibiting mycelial growth and conidium germination, respectively. In the presence of SHAM, the mean EC₅₀ values were 2.24 ± 1.29 and 0.22 ± 0.11 mg l⁻¹. In 2010, five azoxystrobin-resistant isolates were detected with the resistance frequency of 2.25% in greenhouse tomatoes after 4 years of continuous exposure. These resistant isolates showed cross-resistance to other Q_OIs but not to boscalid. In addition, these resistant isolates had comparable growth, sporulation and pathogenicity ability as sensitive isolates and maintained resistance in plants and the presence of SHAM. The G143A point mutation predicted to cause a change from glycine to alanine at codon 143 of cyt b gene was found in all resistant isolates.     

旁路氧化与设施蔬菜灰葡萄孢霉菌菌丝生长 对嘧菌酯敏感性的关系

首次研究分析了灰葡萄孢霉菌群体中旁路氧化与菌丝生长对嘧菌酯敏感性之间的关系。结果表明,旁路氧化酶的专化性抑制剂水杨肟酸(SHAM)对不同菌株菌丝生长的影响不同:50 μg /mL SHAM对采自浙江、江苏、山东三地的142株灰葡萄孢霉菌菌丝生长的抑制率在-29.03% ~48.33%之间,平均为10.49%。SHAM处理对嘧菌酯抑制菌丝生长的活性表现出明 显的协同增效作用:无SHAM时,嘧菌酯对上述群体菌丝生长的EC50(EC50Q)值在0.20~51.48 μg /mL 之间,平均为6.56 μg /mL;当SHAM浓度为50 μg /mL时,EC50 值在0.04~5.25 μg /mL 之间,平均为2.21 μg /mL。旁路氧化的相对贡献值F 最低为0.17,最高为24.40,平均为3.19。另外,少数在没有SHAM存在时对嘧菌酯表现"耐药性"的菌株在SHAM存在下对嘧菌酯也很敏感。     

A Point Mutation in the Two-Component Histidine Kinase BcOS-1 Gene Confers Dicarboximide Resistance in Field Isolates of Botrytis cinerea

ABSTRACT Partial DNA fragments of Botrytis cinerea field isolates encoding the putative osmosensor histidine kinase gene (BcOS1) were cloned by polymerase chain reaction amplification and the predicted amino acid sequences were compared between dicarboximide-sensitive and resistant field isolates. The predicted BcOS1p is highly homologous to osmosensor histidine kinase OS1p from Neurospora crassa including the N-terminal six tandem repeats of approximately 90 amino acids. Four dicarboximide-resistant isolates of B. cinerea (Bc-19, Bc-45, Bc-682, and Bc-RKR) contained a single base pair mutation in their BcOS1 gene that resulted in an amino acid substitution in the predicted protein. In these resistant isolates, codon 86 of the second repeat, which encodes an isoleucine residue in sensitive strains, was converted to a codon for serine. The mutation of Botrytis field resistant isolates was located on the second unit of tandem amino acid repeats of BcOS1p, whereas the point mutations of the fifth repeat of OS1p confer resistance to both dicarboximides and phenylpyrroles and also osmotic sensitivity in Neurospora crassa. These results suggest that an amino acid substitution within the second repeat of BcOS1p is responsible for phenotypes of field resistant isolates (resistant to dicarboximides but sensitive to phenylpyrroles, and normal osmotic sensitivity) in B. cinerea.     

Following the dynamics of strobilurin resistance in Blumeria graminis f.sp. tritici using quantitative allele-specific real-time PCR measurements with the fluorescent dye SYBR Green I

Strobilurin-resistant isolates of Blumeria ( Erysiphe ) graminis f.sp. tritici , the cause of wheat powdery mildew, were more than 10-fold less sensitive to azoxystrobin than sensitive isolates. In all resistant isolates, a mutation resulting in the replacement of a glycine by an alanine residue at codon 143 (G143A) in the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene was found. Allele-specific primers were designed to detect this point mutation in infected wheat leaves. Using quantitative fluorescent allele-specific real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) measurements, strobilurin-resistant A143 alleles could be detected amongst strobilurin-sensitive G143 alleles at a frequency of at least 1 in 10 000, depending on the amount of target and nontarget DNA. Most isolates tested were dominant homoplasmic for either the A143 or G143 allele, although mixed populations of alleles could be detected in some isolates. In some of these isolates, strobilurin resistance was not always stable when they were maintained for many generations in the absence of selection. The allele-specific real-time PCR assay was also used to follow the dynamics of A143 alleles in field populations of B . graminis f.sp. tritici before and after application of fungicides. As expected, the A143 allele frequency only increased under selection pressure from a strobilurin fungicide. After three sprays of azoxystrobin, a pronounced selection for the strobilurin-resistant allele, with an increase in average frequency from 2·2 to 58%, was measured. The use of quantitative real-time PCR diagnostics for early detection of fungicide resistance genes at low frequency, coupled with risk evaluation, will be invaluable for further resistance risk assessment and validation of antiresistance strategies.