山东半岛南部海域三疣梭子蟹增殖放流群体回捕率

根据2010年和2011年5-8月在山东半岛南部海域对三疣梭子蟹(Portunus trituberculatus)增殖放流前后分别进行的每年3个航次的对比调查结果,定量分析了三疣梭子蟹自然群体和增殖放流群体的数量,并根据三疣梭子蟹放流苗种数量和放流后捕捞产量,对三疣梭子蟹增殖放流群体回捕率进行分析.研究结果表明,2010年5月山东半岛南部海域三疣梭子蟹增殖放流前自然群体资源量很少,相对资源密度为0.90 ind/(站.h);在5-6月共放流苗种11 015.13万只,放流后10d左右资源量增加为26.08 ind/(站.h),放流群体所占的比例为96.55％;8月进行调查的相对资源密度为1.70 ind/(站.h),当年生群体数量占所有群体数量的比例为64.29％;9月、10月、11月秋汛期间捕捞产量为3 108 t,捕捞个体平均质量为232.3 g,增殖放流群体回捕率为7.54％.201 1年5月山东半岛南部海域三疣梭子蟹增殖放流前自然群体相对资源密度为1.70 ind/(站.h);在5-6月共放流苗种13 132万只,放流后10d左右资源量增加为29.15 ind/(站.h),放流群体所占的比例为94.17％;8月进行调查的相对数量为1.00 ind/(站.h),当年生群体数量占所有群体数量的比例为70.00％;9月、10月、11月秋汛期间捕捞产量为2 896 t,回捕个体平均质量为226.0 g,增殖放流群体回捕率为6.43％.除2011年胶州湾海域由于富营养化水质较差,以及其他因素对黄家塘湾海域的影响导致这两个放流点放流群体回捕率偏低外,2010年和2011年山东半岛南部放流海域整体水质良好,水温、透明度、盐度、营养盐比例、生物饵料等均比较适中,属于放流环境条件较佳的海域,比较适合三疣梭子蟹生长,放流群体回捕率整体上处于较高水平.     

山东半岛南部三疣梭子蟹增殖放流群体贡献率

根据2010—2016年每年5—8月在山东半岛南部海域对三疣梭子蟹增殖放流前后进行的3个航次的跟踪调查结果,定量分析三疣梭子蟹自然群体和增殖放流群体的数量,并根据三疣梭子蟹放流苗种数量和放流后捕捞产量以及增殖放流群体的贡献率和回捕率,对三疣梭子蟹近年的增殖放流结果进行分析。研究结果表明,2010—2016年的5月,山东半岛南部三疣梭子蟹增殖放流前自然群体资源量较少,相对资源密度为0.20~17.17尾/(站·h),平均资源密度为3.46尾/(站·h);放流苗种数量逐年增加,平均放流苗种数量为14 367.78万尾,放流后约10d的跟踪调查结果表明,三疣梭子蟹的资源量有了较大提高,相对资源密度为6.7~53尾/(站·h),平均资源密度为16.65尾/(站·h),放流群体贡献率的均值为85.82%;8月进行的相对资源量调查,其相对资源密度为0.75~6.72尾/(站·h),均值为1.76尾/(站·h);秋汛期间的回捕产量为2332.91~10 410.77t,平均产量为5308.66t,根据各年秋汛期间调查获得的三疣梭子蟹的平均体质量,得出的放流群体回捕率为5.76%~21.18%,平均回捕率为12.16%。总体上,放流群体在山东半岛南部海域三疣梭子蟹的资源群体中起到了很重要的补充作用,放流群体贡献率较稳定,且相对处于较高水平。     

三疣梭子蟹摄食来源与食物竞争的研究方法

三疣梭子蟹(Portunus trituberculatus)是山东沿海的重要经济种类,在过度捕捞和环境变化影响下,资源已大幅衰退。为恢复三疣梭子蟹资源量,山东省自2005年开始实施大规模增殖放流工作。截止2019年,累计放流37亿尾,回捕产量超过16万t,取得了良好的经济效益、社会效益。三疣梭子蟹和日本鲟(Charybdis japonica)均属十足目、梭子蟹科,两者食性相近,在黄渤海均有分布。了解三疣梭子蟹的食物来源和食物竞争状况,是科学确定放流最佳数量的重要基础,是增殖放流迫切需要解决的关键问题之一.     

放流三疣梭子蟹月间回捕率及繁殖贡献率研究

2015年6月,将约500万只人工繁育的三疣梭子蟹C2期稚蟹放流到辽宁盘锦沿岸海域。当年7月28日—10月3日在盘锦沿岸以地笼网回捕1671只三疣梭子蟹样本,剪其螯足,剥离肌肉,提取DNA,利用微卫星DNA分子标记进行亲子鉴定,开展个体识别。试验结果显示,120只为当年放流蟹,放流后苗种短期月间放流蟹占当月回捕蟹群体的比例为2.61%~16.43%。在所检测的样本中,有22只雌性繁殖亲蟹在1671只回捕蟹群体中鉴定到其所产子代,占所检测的雌性繁殖亲蟹总样本的44%。有87只回捕到的放流蟹均来自3只雌性繁殖亲蟹,其他参与繁殖的雌性亲蟹对放流苗种的贡献率仅为0.83%~4.17%。遗传分析发现,本次增殖放流所使用的雌性繁殖亲蟹遗传多样性较高,种质质量有一定保证。上述研究成果将深化对三疣梭子蟹增殖放流的认知,为科学增殖放流提供参考。     

长江口及毗邻海域三疣梭子蟹种群生物学特征及与环境的关系

根据2006年6月、8月和10月在长江口及其毗邻海域三疣梭子蟹底拖网资源调查资料,分析此区域三疣梭子蟹生物量和资源密度的分布特征及其与环境因子的关系。分析结果表明,三疣梭子蟹主要分布在N 31°~33°之间的海域,其生物量和资源密度在调查中有明显的变化,10月最高,8月次之,6月最少;种群组成中的雌雄比季节性变化明显,6月,雌性个体占优,之后雌雄比趋于相等,至10月,两者比为1∶1;头胸甲宽和体质量呈现幂函数的关系,7—9月是三疣梭子蟹体质量增长最快的时期;在所得环境因子中,溶解氧和NO2是影响三疣梭子蟹分布的最为重要的环境因子。与20世纪90年代数据相比,三疣梭子蟹的资源量有了一定的恢复,这可能与增殖放流和生态环境的改善有关。     

渤海中国对虾资源增殖调查

根据2009年5～10月底的调查和统计资料,对在渤海增殖放流的中国对虾的分布、生长、资源量以及捕捞生产情况进行了调查和研究。结果显示,6月中旬放流的中国对虾多集中在水深1～2m以内和河口附近的浅水区,到7月下旬,分布水深为5～18m,密集分布区在10～15m,之后一直生活在较深水域。6月中旬,中国对虾平均体重为2.5g;7月上、中旬,平均体重为7.0g;7月下旬,平均体重为20.0g;7月底、8月初,平均体重为27.0g;8月中旬,平均体重为36.0g;9月上旬,平均体重为41.0g。8月上、中旬渤海中国对虾的资源量为1 665t;10月下旬,生产捕捞后的资源量减少为137t。8月份中国对虾的资源分布以渤海湾最高,为129.9ind/haul.h,其次为莱州湾,为7.8ind/haul.h,再次是辽东湾,为0.3ind/haul.h,渤海中部最低,为0.05ind/haul.h。2009年渤海共放流中国对虾202641万尾,据初步统计估算,截止10月中旬共捕捞中国对虾2377t,总回捕率为2.8%。     

长江口、杭州湾海域渔业资源增殖放流与效果评估

通过长江口、杭州湾海域2004—2006年渔业资源增殖放流前后调查、分析与评估结果表明,增殖放流种类对放流海域总资源补充量的增加有显著作用,放流种类的资源密度指数呈上升趋势,放流种类的资源补充量逐年增加;三疣梭子蟹、海蜇等放流种类在增殖放流区附近形成了区域性渔场,说明资源增殖、修复的效果非常明显;增殖放流整体的经济效益明显,3年总的苗种放流资金与捕捞经济效益的投入产出比平均达到1∶5,连续放流3年以上时增殖的累积效应得以逐渐体现;增殖放流使渔民的收入明显增加,促进了渔区社会稳定。     

乳山市增殖放流数量又创新高

在近海渔业资源严重衰退的情况下,进行鱼、虾、蟹、蜇等经济品种的增殖放流是修复渔业资源、提高海洋捕捞产量和效益最有效的途径。近年来,山东省乳山市不断增加放流品种,扩大放流规模,社会效益非常显著,达到了渔业增效、渔民增收的良好效果。今年乳山市的增殖放流数量又创新高,共放流苗种近1.2亿尾(只),其中中国对虾3 200多万尾,日本对虾6 500多万尾,梭子蟹500多万只,海蜇1 200多万只。通过回捕调查,产量提高35%~58%,经专家论证,乳山近海渔业资源增殖放流的潜力巨大,有关部门研究决定,明年将进一步增加放流的品种和数量。乳山市增殖放流数…     

三疣梭子蟹稚蟹标志方法的探讨

前言经济价值较大的甲壳类之一——三疣梭子蟹,近年来由于过度捕捞的影响,资源量大幅度下降,开展梭子蟹的人工育苗及放流增殖的研究,是很有必要的。1986年～1988年,日本海外渔业协力财团与营口增殖实验站合作,在前人试验的基础上,在我国首次取得了三疣梭子蟹工厂化人工     

莱州湾三疣梭子蟹生态容量估算

三疣梭子蟹(Portunus trituberculatus,以下简称梭子蟹)是莱州湾内重要渔业资源,为恢复其资源量,湾内每年都进行大规模的增殖放流活动,增殖放流管理工作,亟需对梭子蟹生态容量进行深入研究。通过ECOPATH模型分析了莱州湾生态系统结构,并估算了梭子蟹在湾内的生态容量。在不改变生态系统结构以及维持系统稳定性的前提下,梭子蟹的生态容量可达1.107 t.km-2,生物量可达7 412 t,而梭子蟹在湾内的总资源量为3 759 t,说明梭子蟹仍有很大的放流空间。     

Association between the interannual variation in the oceanic environment and catch rates of bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) in the Atlantic Ocean

The environmental processes associated with variability in the catch rates of bigeye tuna in the Atlantic Ocean are largely unexplored. This study used generalized additive models (GAMs) fitted to Taiwanese longline fishery data from 1990 to 2009 and investigated the association between environmental variables and catch rates to identify the processes influencing bigeye tuna distribution in the Atlantic Ocean. The present findings reveal that the year (temporal factor), latitude and longitude (spatial factors), and major regular longline target species of albacore catches are significant for the standardization of bigeye tuna catch rates in the Atlantic Ocean. The standardized catch rates and distribution of bigeye tuna were found to be related to environmental and climatic variation. The model selection processes showed that the selected GAMs explained 70% of the cumulative deviance in the entire Atlantic Ocean. Regarding environmental factors, the depth of the 20 degree isotherm (D20) substantially contributed to the explained deviance; other important factors were sea surface temperature (SST) and sea surface height deviation (SSHD). The potential fishing grounds were observed with SSTs of 22–28°C, a D20 shallower than 150 m and negative SSHDs in the Atlantic Ocean. The higher predicted catch rates were increased in the positive northern tropical Atlantic and negative North Atlantic Oscillation events with a higher SST and shallow D20, suggesting that climatic oscillations affect the population abundance and distribution of bigeye tuna.     

Growth performance,digestive enzyme activity and immune response of Japanese sea bass,Lateolabrax japonicus fed with fructooligosaccharide

In this experiment, a feeding trial was performed to determine the effects of fructooligosaccharide (FOS) on growth performance, digestive enzyme activity and immune response of Japanese sea bass, Lateolabrax japonicus juveniles (initial weight 38.3 ± 0.5 g), and the fish were examined following feeding with six levels of FOS (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 6 g/kg) for 28 days. Significant enhancement of weight gain (WG) and specific growth rate (SGR) was found in fish fed 1 g/kg FOS incorporated diets (p < .05), while the feed conversion ratio (FCR) in the 1, 2 g/kg FOS groups reduced significantly compared with the control (p < .05). Besides, the crude lipid in the 4, 6 g/kg FOS groups increased significantly compared with the control (p < .05). On the other hand, the erepsin and lipase activities significantly elevated in intestine of fish fed 2 g/kg FOS (p < .05) and the lysozyme activity in serum of fish fed 2 g/kg FOS were significantly higher than that in the control (p < .05). Moreover, the alkaline phosphatase activities in serum of fish fed 0.5, 1, 2 g/kg FOS were significantly higher than in control (p < .05). Regression analysis showed that the relationships between dietary FOS levels and either SGR, FCR, erepsin or lysozyme activities were best expressed by regression equations, and the optimal inclusion levels are 1.37, 1.80, 3.06, 3.11, 1.93 and 1.80 g/kg for SGR, FCR, erepsin, lipase, lysozyme and total superoxide dismutase activities, respectively. Overall, this study revealed that FOS incorporated diets could beneficial for L. japonicus culture in terms of increasing the growth, digestion and immune activities. Under the present experimental condition, the optimal supplementary level of FOS in the diet of L. japonicus is 1–3 g/kg.     

Involvement of gonadal steroids in final oocyte maturation of white perch (Morone americana) and white bass (M. chrysops): in vivo and in vitro studies

Plasma estradiol-17 (E₂), testosterone (T), 17,20-dihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one (DHP) and 17,20,21-tri-hydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one (20-S) levels were measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA) in white perch (Morone americana) and white bass (M. chrysops) that were induced to undergo final oocyte maturation (FOM) with human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). Plasma DHP levels increased in females of both species in association with oocyte germinal vesicle migration (GVM) and germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD) and decreased thereafter. Plasma 20-S levels also increased with oocyte GVM in white bass, but were several-fold lower than DHP levels. Circulating E₂ and T levels were greatest during GVM and GVBD in both species and decreased to low levels during oocyte hydration and ovulation. Follicles from white perch and white bass which received a priming injection of hCG in vivo, produced both DHP and 20-S in vitro after exposure to hCG and their oocytes underwent GVBD. Ovarian incubates from unprimed fish of either species produced only E₂ and T and their oocytes did not complete GVBD. Oocytes from unprimed bass, but not perch, matured when follicles were exposed to hCG in vitro. Both trilostane and cycloheximide blocked in vitro production of DHP and 20-S and oocyte GVBD by white perch follices. DHP and 20-S were equipotent inducers of FOM in the GVBD bioassay. None of several other structurally-related steroids tested were effective within a physiological range of concentrations. These results indicate a role for DHP and 20-S in the control of FOM in white perch and white bass.     

Cardiac,ventilatory and metabolic responses of two ecologically dissimilar species of fish to waterborne cyanide

Changes in heart rate, ventilatory activity and oxygen consumption were determined in trout (Salmo gairdneri) and brown bullhead catfish (Ictalurus nebulosus) during exposure to a steadily increasing concentration of waterborne cyanide selected to produce death in 8–9 hours for each species. The lethal cyanide concentration for the bullheads was an order of magnitude higher than for trout. Trout developed an immediate and gradually increasing bradycardia throughout the exposure period. Cyanide produced tachycardia in the bullhead followed by a gradual onset of bradycardia as the concentration of cyanide was raised. Pericardial injection of atropine (a muscarinic cholinergic antagonist) indicated that bradycardia in the trout was due initially to increased vagal tone but later due to the direct effect of cyanide on the heart. Hyperventilation in the trout persisted throughout the exposure period, although the rate and amplitude fluctuated and was variable between individual fish. During the last hour of exposure (highest cyanide concentration), ventilation was characterized by rapid, shallow breaths followed by a sudden respiratory arrest. The bullheads exhibited hyperventilation during the first 3 hours of exposure followed by a gradual, linear drop in ventilation rate and amplitude until death occurred. Cardiac and ventilatory responses in both species were attributed to stimulation of central and peripheral chemoreceptors by cyanide. Evidence is presented which suggests the initial response in the bullheads was due, at least in part, to gustatory stimulation by the cyanide. Oxygen consumption of the trout remained above pre-exposure levels for the majority of the test period. Oxygen consumption in the bullhead paralleled the changes in heart and ventilatory rates. Whole-body lactate levels of fingerlings of both species during cyanide exposure were measured to estimate the extent of anaerobiosis. Whole-body lactate levels were much greater in the bullheads than the trout, indicating a higher capacity for anaerobiosis, possibly due to a greater fuel supply. Overall, the trout responded to cyanide in a manner similar to that produced by environmental hypoxia whereas the bullheads experienced a gustatory stimulus which masked the hypoxia-like response.     

An overview of stress physiology of fish transport: changes in water quality as a function of transport duration

This study brings an integrated analysis about the relationship between water deterioration and its physiological consequences in live fish transport. The analysis was focused on the transport water and its deterioration, and physiological challenges imposed on the fish. Usual commercial handling procedures employed to mitigate fish stress during transport were discussed. Future topics of research for the establishment of safer fish transport protocols were proposed. Transport was classified into short (≤8 h) or long transport (>8 h). The main issue in short transports should be the prevention of water pH reduction, while in long transports it is the increase in ammonia. Plasma cortisol is the most employed marker for stress and is acutely elevated upon short episodes of transport, but remains elevated even in long‐transport events. Plasma glucose is perhaps a better marker for handling stress. Plasma lactate, pH, osmolality CO₂ and ions should be more often evaluated. Plasma Na⁺ and Cl^‐ are very useful markers of acidosis, due to their respective exchange for H⁺ and , for acid–base regulation. The establishment of species‐specific transport protocols should be preceded by such combined analyses of water and physiological parameters.     

Are hatchery‐reared abalone naïve of predators? Comparing the behaviours of wild and hatchery‐reared northern abalone,Haliotis kamtschatkana (Jonas, 1845)

Abalone populations have declined worldwide, generating interest in enhancement using hatchery‐reared individuals. In many cases, such restoration efforts have met with limited success due to high predator‐induced mortality rates. Furthermore, the mortality rates of outplanted hatchery abalone are often considerably higher than for wild individuals. This study uses northern abalone (Haliotis kamtschatkana) as a case study to determine whether hatchery‐reared abalone behave differently than their wild counterparts. In the field, outplanted hatchery‐reared abalone were significantly less responsive than wild abalone, in terms of number of abalone responding and intensity of response, to nearby movement and to physical contact with an inert probe. Also, when encountering a cue to which all abalone responded (a seastar predator), hatchery‐reared individuals remained subdued. Anti‐predator behavioural deficits in hatchery‐reared abalone were more pronounced in 4‐year‐old individuals than in 1‐year‐old individuals, suggesting an influence of either age or amount of time spent in the hatchery environment. These behavioural differences are expected to increase the vulnerability of hatchery‐reared abalone to predators, and are likely a major cause of their elevated predator‐induced mortality when outplanted.     

Effects of cadmium on the kinetics of calcium uptake in developing tilapia larvae, Oreochromis mossambicus

The toxic effects of Cd²⁺ on Ca²⁺ influx kinetics in developing tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) larvae were evaluated. Addition of 20 µg l^-1 of Cd²⁺ to the environment of 0 and 3 day-old larvae competitively inhibited the Ca²⁺ uptake within 4h resulting in a great increase in K_m values for Ca²⁺ influx (19.3 and 17.4 fold, respectively) as compared with their respective controls. Consequently, the actual Ca²⁺ influx of larvae in solutions of 0.2 mM Ca²⁺ are suppressed by 32–45%. Also, 3 day-old larvae were more sensitive to internally accumulated Cd²⁺ than 0 day-old larvae. Although the Ca²⁺ influx in 0 and 3 day-old larvae may be restored to the levels of their respective controls with 24h of being transferred to a 20 µg l^-1 Cd²⁺ solution, total body Ca²⁺ content was significantly reduced in 3 day-old larvae. Increased Ca²⁺ uptake efficiency ensures sufficient Ca²⁺ for normal growth. However, rapid increase in Ca²⁺ influx after hatching also leads to higher Cd²⁺ uptake. Exposure to Cd²⁺ will lead to a drop in body Ca²⁺ content resulting in retardation of larval growth. Therefore, we conclude that if Ca²⁺ uptake is interfered with at this critical stage of development, larvae will not be able to maintain normal levels of body Ca²⁺ and will show signs of Cd²⁺ poisoning.     

Migratory dynamics of stream-spawning longnose gar (Lepisosteus osseus)

Abstract– Literature evidence suggests that lake-dwelling longnose gar (Lepisosteus osseus) enter tributary streams to spawn, Until the present study, the dynamics of this breeding migration had never been investigated quantitatively. During the summers of 1991 and 1992, longnose gar were captured as they entered Weaubleau Creek, Missouri, a tributary of Harry S. Truman Reservoir. The in-stream spawning migration began in early April and ended in late May, and was positively correlated with stream flow and water level, and negatively correlated with water temperature. In-stream residence times ranged from 15 to 94 days, with males exhibiting longer residence times than females. Once in-stream, longnose gar travelled as far as 10 km upstream and occupied certain pools at greater relative frequencies. Although the reason for this preferential utilization is not completely understood, it may relate to pool depth and riffle proximity. Longnose gar disperse from the spawning stream great distances, with gar captured in Weaubleau Creek being recaptured up to 48 km away. This information should provide fisheries biologists the means to consider the reproductive ecology of this species in their conservation and management decisions.     

Nutritional regulation of hepatocyte fatty acid desaturation and polyunsaturated fatty acid composition in zebrafish (Danio rerio) and tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

The desaturation and elongation of [1-¹⁴C]18:3n-3 was investigated in hepatocytes of the tropical warm freshwater species, zebrafish (Danio rerio) and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). The hepatocyte fatty acid desaturation/elongation pathway was assayed before and after the fish were fed two experimental diets, a control diet containing fish oil (FO) and a diet containing vegetable oil (VO; a blend of olive, linseed and high oleic acid sunflower oils) for 10 weeks. The VO diet was formulated to provide 1% each of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3, and so satisfy the possible EFA requirements of zebrafish and tilapia. At the end of the dietary trial, the lipid and fatty acid composition was determined in whole zebrafish, and liver, white muscle and brain of tilapia. Both zebrafish and tilapia expressed a hepatocyte fatty acid desaturation/elongation pattern consistent with them being freshwater and planktonivorous fish. The data also showed that hepatic fatty acid desaturation/elongation was nutritionally regulated with the activities being higher in fish fed the VO diet compared to fish fed the FO diet. In zebrafish, the main effect of the VO diet was increased fatty acid Δ6 desaturase activity resulting in the production of significantly more 18:4n-3 compared to fish fed the FO diet. In tilapia, all activities in the pathway were greater in fish fed the VO diet resulting in increased amounts of all fatty acids in the pathway, but primarily eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3). However, the fatty acid compositional data indicated that despite increased activity, desaturation of 18:3n-3 was insufficient to maintain tissue proportions of EPA and DHA in fish fed the VO diet at the same level as in fish fed the FO diet. Practically, these results indicate that manipulation of tilapia diets in commercial culture in response to the declining global fish oil market would have important consequences for fish fatty acid composition and the health of consumers. Scientifically, zebrafish and tilapia, both the subject of active genome mapping projects, could be useful models for studies of lipid and fatty acid metabolism at a molecular biological and genetic level. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Protein and amino acid composition from the mantle of juvenile O ctopus vulgaris exposed to prolonged starvation

Protein and amino acid composition of the mantle of juvenile O ctopus vulgaris (Cuvier, 1797) during fasting for 27 days were determined. Average protein content of octopus mantle was of 711.19 ± 46.80 g kg^?1 DW, and it decreased with increasing fasting days. The non‐essential amino acids content was higher (486.18 ± 11.08 g kg^?1 protein) than essential amino acids (425.82 ± 9.15 g kg^?1 protein) at the start of the experiment (unstarved animals). The results suggest that the amino acid profile of the mantle where the most abundant amino acids are Arg, His, Lys, Gly, Leu and Pro could indicate a prolonged fasting condition (>20 days) or poor nutrition of O . vulgaris. This study supports the idea of using mantle for metabolic needs of starved O . vulgaris suggesting that the degradation pathway of amino acids to pyruvate and tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates was favoured contrary to the degradation pathway of ketogenic amino acids. Special considerations should be taken concerning Thr, Ile, Ser, Ala, Asx (Asp, Asn), Glx (Glu, Gln) (because of their fast intake) and Lys and His (due to their stable contents) during a prolonged period of fasting.