Effect of temperature on growth,digestion and immunity of green,white and purple sea cucumbers,Apostichopus japonicus (Selenka)

Three color morphs (white, green and purple strains) of Apostichopus japonicus (Selenka) were cultured in artificial seawater, for approximately 90 days, in three temperature ranges: 27–22°C (high), 22–17°C (mid) and 17–12°C (low). All strains grew in all temperature ranges. Temperature significantly affected growth rate, digestibility, digestive enzymes and immune‐related enzymes. Highest specific growth rates were exhibited in 4‐month‐old sea cucumbers at mid and high temperatures, and in 16‐month‐old sea cucumbers at mid and low temperatures. Specific growth rates of green and purple strains were not significantly different, but were significantly higher than that of the white strain at mid temperatures. The digestibility of each strain was significantly higher at 27°C, 22°C and 17°C than at 12°C. Green‐strain digestibility was higher than that of purple and white strains at specific temperatures. Protease and amylase activities of all strains followed bell‐shaped temperature curves with maximum digestive enzyme activity at 17°C. The activities of alkaline and acid phosphatases were higher in the guts of the green strain than in the white or purple strains at the same temperature. Superoxide dismutase activity was higher in the purple strain than in white and green strains.     

Effect of salinity on growth and energy budget of red and green colour variant sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus (Selenca)

Sea cucumber, Apostichopus japonicus (Selenca), tolerates salinity fluctuations inhabiting intertide zone. This study deals with growth, food intake, food conversion and the bioenergetic responses of the red variant (wet weight of 2.60 ± 0.11g) and green variant (wet weight of 2.56 ± 0.08 g) A. japonicus to different salinities of 22, 26, 30, 34, and 38 psu at 16.5 ± 0.5°C. The results showed that salinity had a significant effect on specific growth rate (SGR) of both green and red variants A. japonicus (P < 0.05). Both colour variants of sea cucumber had highest SGR at 30 psu, and then decreased when salinity below or above this point. Maximum SGR (the green 1.07 ± 0.08% day^?1, the red 1.14 ± 0.09% day^?1 respectively) is related with maximum food intake (FI) and highest food conversion efficiency (FCE) (P < 0.05) occurring at 30 psu. Only under 22 psu, the green variant grew faster than the red variant (P < 0.05), and under other four salinity treatments there was no significant difference between SGR of two colour variant holothruians (P > 0.05). Values of adaptable salinity scope for green and red variants sea cucumber survival are 18.5~39 psu and 20.9~38.6 psu respectively. The average energy budget formula of sea cucumber at 30 psu was: 100C = 6G +42F +3U+49R (C, energy ingested; G, energy for growth; F, energy loss as faeces; U, energy used for ammonia excretion; R, energy loss for respiration). The sea cucumber had maximum energy ingested (C) and highest proportion of energy for growth (G) at 30 psu, and then decreased when salinity is above or below this salinity. Both red and green variants of A. japonicus deposited for growth were very low, and the energy loss in faeces and energy for respiration accounted for the majority of assimilation energy. The result clearly showed that the optimum condition for farming green and red variants A. japonicus, both with respect growth and energy allocation, is the salinity scope of 26 ~ 30 psu.     

Dietary supplementation of red alga Pyropia spheroplasts on growth,feed utilization and body composition of sea cucumber,Apostichopus japonicus (Selenka)

A feeding experiment was conducted in a closed recirculating system to evaluate the effects of freeze‐dried spheroplasts prepared from Pyropia yezoensis (Ueda) on feed intake, growth and biochemical composition of sea cucumber, Apostichopus japonicus (Selenka). Pyropea spheroplasts (PS) were prepared through enzymatic treatment to break down the complex mixture of polysaccharides cell walls that might be easier for growth energy partitioning. Sea cucumbers were fed‐formulated diets with 10 (Diet 1), 30 (Diet 2) and 50 g/kg (Diet 3) inclusion level of PS. A diet without PS was used as a control (Diet 4). The experiment was conducted for 6 weeks maintaining water temperature 15 ± 1°C, photoperiod 18:06 hours (D:L). Feed was supplied ad‐libitum at 16.00 h once in a day, and the remaining feed and faeces were removed in the next day. Results showed that the highest growth was observed in the 50 g/kg PS diet compared to other treatments. Total weight gain, mean weight gain, net yield, protein efficiency ratio (PER) and protein gain (%) were significantly higher in the 50 g/kg PS diet (p < .05). A significantly higher percentage of energy was allocated for growth in the 50 g/kg PS diet. The highest specific growth rate and feed conversion efficiency (p < .05) were observed in the higher percentage of PS diet. Both the growth performance and biochemical analysis showed that superior growth was observed with increasing levels of PS in the diet. We infer that PS can be used as a new, cheaper feed ingredient in the formulated diet of A. japonicus.     

Effects of stocking density,temperature, and salinity on larval survival and growth of the red race of the sea cucumber <Emphasis Type="Italic">Apostichopus japonicus</Emphasis> (Selenka)

The red race of the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus was introduced into China from Japan for large-scale seed production because of its economic value. This paper reports the effects of stocking density, temperature, and salinity on survival and growth of early larvae before and after feeding, in order to establish conditions for optimal larval growth and production. To maximize the yield per unit of space, densities of 0.5–1 larvae/ml are recommended for non-feeding larvae, while 0.1–0.2 larvae/ml are best for feeding larvae. Higher survival and growth values were obtained for both non-feeding and feeding larvae at temperature ranges from 21 to 24°C. Larvae reared at a salinity of 30‰ always showed maximum growth and survival. Based on results of this study, a temperature range from 21 to 24°C and a salinity of 30 are considered optimal for early development of the red A. japonicus.     

Spontaneous captive breeding and larval development in the green and red variants of the Japanese sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus (Selenka 1867)

We report the spontaneous spawning, larval development, survival rate and larval growth rate patterns observed in the green and red variants of the Japanese sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus. The green variant adapted well to the captive conditions in the Sasebo City Fisheries Center and spontaneously spawned without any induction or stimulation. One hundred individual green variants spawned nine times and produced approximately 155 million eggs. In contrast, 50 individual red variants showed poor adaptation to captivity and spawned spontaneously only three times, producing about 12 million eggs. Larval development and growth rate pattern was almost identical between the two variants of A. japonicus. In contrast, the larval survival rate for the green variant was over 90% up to the auricularia stage (10 days), but much low (less than 30%) for the red variant. We demonstrated that the green variant of A. japonicus was easier to rear in captivity. This provides a useful method for maintaining sustainable harvests and eventually contributing to restocking and sea ranching of the existing population. Further studies about optimal ecological conditions and behaviour are needed to improve egg production and survival rate of the red variant of A. japonicus.     

包装方式对日本鳀鱼干品质特性的影响

[目的]为探究不同包装对丁香鱼干常温贮藏期间的品质特性影响,[方法] 以空气包装为对照,与真空包装、气调包装和CO2包装做比较,测定贮藏过程中菌落总数、TVB-N、POV、TBA、色差、挥发性风味成分及感官评分的变化。[结果]结果显示,真空、气调、CO2三种包装均能有效抑制丁香鱼干微生物生长,常温25 ℃贮藏8 d后,真空包装组样品TVB-N、POV和TBA值分别较空气包装组降低47.08%、4.13%和25.49%,并且真空包装组样品在减缓样品色泽变化、保护肌纤维结构完整性、保留挥发性风味成分和保持感官特性方面均具有较佳效果,确定了真空包装为丁香鱼干的最佳包装方式。基于Arhenius方程建立了丁香鱼干货架期预测模型,25 ℃和35 ℃下真空包装丁香鱼干的货架期分别为6.07和3.23 d。[意义]本研究成果可为丁香鱼干常温物流过程中的品质控制提供理论依据。     

If Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus is ‘the most diverse vertebrate’, what is the lake charr Salvelinus namaycush?

Teleost fishes are prominent vertebrate models of evolution, illustrated among old‐world radiations by the Cichlidae of East African Great Lakes and new‐world radiations by the circumpolar Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus. Herein, we describe variation in lake charr S. namaycush morphology, life history, physiology and ecology, as another example of radiation. The lake charr is restricted to northern North America, where it originated from glacial refugia and diversified in large lakes. Shallow and deepwater morphs arose in multiple lakes, with a large‐bodied shallow‐water ‘lean’ morph in shallow inshore depths, a small‐bodied mid‐water ‘humper’ morph on offshore shoals or banks, a robust, large‐bodied moderate to deep‐water ‘redfin’; morph and a large‐bodied deep‐water ‘siscowet’ morph at depths > 100 m. Eye position, gape size, and gillraker length and spacing adapted for feeding on different‐sized prey, with piscivorous morphs (leans, siscowets and presumably redfins) reaching larger asymptotic size than invertivorous morphs (humpers). Lean morphs are light in colour, whereas deepwater morphs are drab and dark, although the pattern is reversed in dark tannic lakes. Morphs shift from benthic to pelagic feeding at a length of 400–490 mm. Phenotypic differences in locomotion, buoyancy and lipid metabolism evolved into different mechanisms for buoyancy regulation, with lean morphs relying on hydrodynamic lift and siscowet morphs relying on hydrostatic lift. We suggest that the Salvelinus genus, rather than the species S. alpinus, is a diverse genus that should be the subject of comparative studies of processes causing divergence and adaptation among member species that may lead to a more complete evolutionary conceptual model.     

Food consumption, moulting and survival of Penaeus semisulcatus during over-wintering

Over‐wintering of Penaeus semisulcatus (20.61 g) at three different temperatures (14, 18 and 22°C) was carried out in a greenhouse in three different closed recirculating systems. Temperature significantly influenced specific growth rate (SGR) and moulting interval (MI) (P<0.05). The SGR was 15‐fold higher and the MI was 2.7‐fold shorter at 22°C in comparison with 14°C. The relationship between SGR and temperature (T) was: Y=?0.053+0.070T (R²=0.97). Shrimps over‐wintered at 14°C consumed almost three times less food (0.43% body weight) than those at 22°C (1.28%) (P<0.05). A positive relationship (FR=0.426T–0.020, R²=0.99) was observed between feeding rate (FR) and temperature. The survival rate achieved at 14, 18 and 22°C over the experimental period of 70 days was 87%, 67% and 73% respectively. Our data indicate that it is possible to over‐winter this shrimp species in the sub‐tropical regions by maintaining water temperature at around 14°C and 39 ppt salinity, in which little energy expenditure is needed, and the shrimp can survive and consume minimum amount of feed.     

A high-performance temperature-control scheme: growth of sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus with different modes of diel temperature fluctuation

The effects of four modes of diel temperature-fluctuation with two designated fluctuating temperatures (15 ± 3°C and 18 ± 3°C) on the growth and energy budget of young sea cucumber, Apostichopus japonicus Selenka, were studied to develop a highly efficient temperature-control scheme for aquaculture of the species. Sea cucumbers with a mean wet body weight of 8.0 ± 1.2 g (mean ± SD) were allocated to each treatment randomly with five replicates. After a 38-day trial, specific growth rate (SGR) and food conversion efficiency (FCE) decreased with increasing temperature in constant-temperature treatments. Among the four modes of temperature fluctuation, SGR of sea cucumbers reared under a mode which simulated the natural fluctuation of the temperature (mode C) of seawater was significantly higher than that of sea cucumbers reared at the corresponding constant temperatures. This enhancement of growth rate by use of mode C was attributed to higher FCE and lower energy allocated to respiration and feces. In large-scale culture, a temperature-control mode designed based on mode C could enhance not only growth but also efficiency of food utilization by the young sea cucumber.     

刺参养殖池塘中新敌害生物澳洲异尾涡虫的鉴定及其危害

为了对导致辽宁大连、山东东营的2家养殖场池塘养殖刺参大量化皮死亡的新的敌害生物进行鉴定并确定其对养殖刺参的危害。本实验通过形态学观察、分子鉴定及系统发育分析确定了涡虫的分类地位,通过生态学方法确定了其生态适应条件,通过切割后培养的方法观测了其再生能力,通过与刺参苗种的共培养实验测试了该物种对刺参的危害及其危害方式。形态学观察结果显示,该涡虫体长0.96～3.26 mm,体宽0.49～1.93 mm,外观黄色或黄褐色,头部钝圆,具一对暗红色棒状眼点,尾部具两条并列的尾垂;显微镜镜检发现其表皮下分布密集的虫黄藻,体表周生纤毛,雌雄同体,口后具有两个生殖孔;对该物种COⅠ及18S r DNA基因片段扩增测序结果进行分析,并构建基于18S rDNA基因的系统发育树,结果显示该生物与澳洲异尾涡虫序列同源性达99.64%,根据其形态学特征,并结合18S rDNA分子鉴定结果,将该生物鉴定为澳洲异尾涡虫;进一步对其生活习性进行了研究,结果显示,该生物具有避光性,其适宜温度为18～24°C,适宜pH为5.5～8.0,适宜盐度为20～40;再生实验表明,该物种具有很强的前后轴极性再生能力;该生物与刺参的共培养实验表明,澳洲异尾涡虫对刺参体表表现出很强的趋向性,可以吸附在刺参体表导致刺参苗种溃疡、化皮甚至死亡,但刺参的体腔、肠道、呼吸树内均未发现虫体寄生。研究表明,澳洲异尾涡虫是营自由生活的池塘养殖刺参的一种新的敌害生物,在养殖过程中需要密切关注并防范该敌害生物。     

Growth,settlement and survival of Dicathais orbita (Neogastropoda,Mollusca) larvae in response to temperature,diet and settlement cues

The southern Australian whelk, Dicathais orbita, is a potential candidate for aquaculture, as both seafood and for bioactive compound production. Larval rearing experiments to determine the effects of temperature and diet on the growth and survival of D. orbita larvae under laboratory conditions comprised five different unicellular algal diets of two brown algal species; Isochysis galbana and Chaetoceros muelleri, two green algae; Tetraselmis seucica and Nannochloropsis oculata, and a mixture of all four strains for larvae maintained at 16 and 22°C. Absolute growth, specific growth rate (SGR) and survival were determined regularly. Larvae reared at 22°C on a mixed diet, or brown algae, performed significantly better than those reared on green algal diets alone. Preliminary trials with settlement cues were undertaken on different aged larvae to determine when larvae become competent. An array of natural cues (carrion, Xenostrobus pulex, adult mucus and Ulvella lens), as well as concentrations of KCl was tested. KCl(concentration of 20 mM) induced the greatest settlement, however, no larvae metamorphosed under the conditions provided. This study confirms long‐lived planktotrophic larval development for Dicathais orbita with higher development rates at the higher water temperatures. Further studies will optimize culture conditions and cues for settlement and metamorphosis.     

3种不同体色刺参体壁营养成分的比较研究

本研究分别对青色、紫色和白色刺参(Apostichopus japonicus)体壁的营养成分,包括蛋白、脂肪、粗多糖、氨基酸组成、脂肪酸组成及微量元素进行了比较分析。结果显示,青色刺参蛋白含量显著低于紫色和白色刺参(P<0.05),脂肪含量三者无显著差异(P>0.05),青色刺参和紫色刺参的粗多糖含量高于白色刺参(P<0.05)。3种体色刺参检测出17种氨基酸,白色和紫色刺参氨基酸含量相对较高,为48%左右,而青色刺参体壁氨基酸含量为44%左右。紫色和白色刺参的赖氨酸、苯丙氨酸、苏氨酸、缬氨酸等氨基酸的含量均显著高于青色刺参(P<0.05)。亚油酸(LA)、花生四烯酸(AA)、二十碳五烯酸(EPA)和二十二碳六烯酸(DHA)在3种刺参占较高比重,其中,LA作为重要必需脂肪酸在紫色和白色刺参中均显著高于青色刺参(P<0.05),为青色刺参的4.6倍左右;紫色和白色刺参的AA含量也显著高于青色刺参(P<0.05);而青色刺参中的EPA和DHA均显著高于紫色和白色刺参(P<0.05)。在检测的矿物质中,Fe在3种刺参中含量最高,紫色刺参Fe的含量显著低于青色和白色刺参(P<0.05);青色刺参Mn的含量显著高于紫色和白色刺参(P<0.05);白色刺参Cr的含量显著高于青色和紫色刺参(P<0.05)。研究表明,3种体色刺参的营养成分存在较大差异,均具有进一步开发利用价值。     

Growth,immunity and ammonia excretion of albino and normal Apostichopus japonicus (Selenka) feeding with various experimental diets

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of six experimental diets on growth performance, ammonia excretion and immunity of albino and normal Apostichopus japonicus. A factorial design was used, the factors being type of diets (six levels) and colour of A. japonicus (two levels). A total of 30 randomly selected albino A. japonicus were housed in each (60 × 50 × 30 cm³) of 18 blue plastic aquaria to form six groups in triplicate, and the same set‐up was used for the normal A. japonicus. Each group of animals was fed with one of the six experimental diets. Apparent dry matter digestibility (ADMD) and apparent crude protein digestibility (ACPD) were analysed using acid‐insoluble ash (AIA) content method. At the end of the experiment, all A. japonicus were harvested and weighed to calculate growth parameters. After weighing, six individuals from each aquarium were randomly sampled for immune indices. Results indicated that all growth parameters of A. japonicus increased with decreasing nutrient content in their diets (p < .01), whereas an opposite result was observed in case of the ammonia‐nitrogen production by A. japonicus. Normal A. japonicus grew better (p < .01) and produced lower (p < .01) quantity of ammonia nitrogen compared to the albino A. japonicus. Immunity particularly superoxide dismutase and lysozyme activities was higher (p < .05) in normal compared to albino A. japonicus. Considering all measured variables, D1 (diet containing crude protein, crude lipid, carbohydrate and crude ash 51.8, 8.7, 231.3, 708.2 g/kg, respectively) was the best diet among all experimental diets. More research is still needed to optimize nutrients in the diet of A. japonicus, as this study does not provide information about critical threshold level of nutrients in diets. Until then, diet D1 can be recommended for A. japonicus aquaculture.     

Effects of body size and water temperature on food consumption and growth in the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus (Selenka) with special reference to aestivation

To investigate the effects of body size and water temperature on feeding and growth in the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus (Selenka), the maximum rate of food consumption in terms of energy (C_maxe; J day^?1) and the specific growth rate in terms of energy (SGRe; % day^?1) in animals of three body sizes (mean±SE) – large (134.0±3.5 g), medium (73.6±2.2 g) and small (36.5±1.2 g) – were determined at water temperatures of 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30°C. Maximum rate of food consumption in terms of energy increased and SGRe decreased with increasing body weight at 10, 15 and 20°C. This trend, however, was not apparent at 25 and 30°C, which could be influenced by aestivation. High water temperatures (above 20°C) were disadvantageous to feeding and growth of this animal; SGRe of A. japonicus during aestivation was negative. The optimum temperatures for food consumption and for growth were similar and were between 14 and 15°C, and body size seemed to have a slight effect on the optimal temperature for food consumption or growth. Because aestivation of A. japonicus was temperature dependent, the present paper also documented the threshold temperatures to aestivation as indicated by feeding cessation. Deduced from daily food consumption of individuals, the threshold temperature to aestivation for large and medium animals (73.3–139.3 g) was 24.5?25.5°C, while that for small animals (28.9–40.7 g) was between 25.5 and 30.5°C. These values are higher than previous reports; differences in sign of aestivation, experimental condition and dwelling district of test animals could be the reasons.     

Effects of temperature on growth of juvenile blackfoot abalone, Haliotis iris Gmelin

The effects of temperature on growth and survival of juvenile blackfoot abalone, Haliotis iris, were investigated. Animals of 10, 30 or 60 mm initial shell length were exposed to ambient (6–10°C), 14, 18, 22 and 26°C for 112 days in a flow‐through culture system. Maximum growth occurred at 22°C for the 10 and 30 mm size classes and at 18°C for the 60 mm size class. Regression analysis identified the optimal temperature for growth (T_optG) at around 21°C for the 10 and 30 mm size classes and at 17–18°C for the largest size class. In a second experiment, the critical thermal maximum of H. iris was determined as a measure of thermal tolerance. Abalone were subjected to increasing water temperatures at a rate of 2°C h^?1 until they detached from the substrate. Abalone of 10 mm displayed greater thermal tolerance than abalone of 30 and 60 mm in length. CT₅₀ temperatures were 28.8, 27.7 and 27.8°C, yielding deduced T_optG values of 19.7, 18.3 and 18.4°C for the 10, 30 and 60 mm size classes respectively. The size‐dependent nature of the relationship between growth and temperature could be capitalized upon in recirculating aquaculture systems.     

Effect of temperature on the development, growth, survival and settlement of green mussel Perna viridis (Linnaeus, 1758)

The effect of temperature on the development, growth, survival and settlement of Perna viridis was studied under controlled conditions to provide information needed for the development of commercial hatchery technology for green mussel P. viridis. Total mortality of the larvae occurred after 24 h at temperatures of 33°C and 35°C. At 24°C, larvae took longer to settle than at temperatures of 27°C, 29°C and 31°C. For optimum larval development (8–13 h), growth (17.2±0.84 μm day^–1) and survival (55.2±0.84%), a hatchery rearing temperature of 31°C is required. For settlement no significant difference was seen between the percentage settlement at 29°C (49.3±3.34%) and 31°C (45.8±1.76%). However, the process of settlement began and ended earlier at 29°C (from 15 to 18 days) than at 31°C (from 18 to 20 days). Thus for larval settlement a temperature of 29°C is recommended.     

Quantification of waste feed and fish faeces in sediments beneath yellowtail pens and possibility to reduce waste loading by co‐culturing with sea cucumbers: an isotopic study

To evaluate environmental impacts of yellowtail culture and to examine the efficiency of the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus in reduction of waste loading, surface sediments were sampled and A. japonicus were cultured at a yellowtail farm in Owase Bay, Japan. Waste feed‐ and faeces‐derived organic matter (WOM, FOM) in sedimentary organic matter (SOM) was estimated based on the δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N of the fish feed (?21.7‰, 9.2‰), yellowtail faeces (?20.6‰, 6.2‰) and SOM reference (?24.4‰, 4.4‰). Small WOM (0–22% in SOM) but substantial FOM (28–61%) loadings in the fish farm area and high sulphide concentrations in the sediments (1.0 mg g^?1) suggest that reduction in the fish stocks or mitigation of the faeces should be considered. A. japonicus juveniles were cultured in three cages deployed below a pen and growth was assessed after three different periods (62, 107, 181 days). A. japonicus grew well during the first 107 days (daily specific growth rate, 3.7%) and their survivorship was high (80–90%). Growth ceased after 107 days, probably due to fouling on the cages. The δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N of their hypothetical diet (–19.7‰, 5.5‰) were close to the FOM values, suggesting assimilation of FOM.     

Effect of high temperature stress on the fertility of male and female gametes of the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus

We evaluated the effect of high temperature on Apostichopus japonicus gametes. Gametes were exposed to the optimal temperature (18°C; control) or one of six high temperature treatments (26, 27, 28, 29, 30 and 31°C) and the cleavage rate (CR) of fertilized eggs was measured as an indication of fertilization ability. At control temperatures (18°C), the male and female gametes had high fertilization ability (CR ≥95.0%) in 5 h and the time at which 50% of gametes lost the ability to successfully fertilize (LT₅₀) was 7.03 h. All gametes were non‐viable after 9 h. When male and female gametes were both exposed to high temperature, the LT₅₀ was lower than that when female or male gametes were treated individually at the same high temperature (P < 0.05). The LT₅₀ was lower for male gametes treated alone than for female gametes treated alone. In conclusion, exposure to high temperature results in a decline in fertilization ability of A. japonicus gametes, and this decline was more rapid at higher temperature. The female gametes were more resistant to high temperatures than male gametes.