Pharmacokinetics of oxolinic acid and oxytetracycline in kuruma shrimp, Penaeus japonicus

The pharmacokinetics of oxolinic acid and oxytetracycline were examined in kuruma shrimp (Penaeus japonicus) after intra-sinus (10 and 25 mg/kg, respectively) and oral (50 mg/kg) administration. The shrimp were kept in tanks with recirculated artificial seawater at a salinity of 22–23 ppt. The water temperature was maintained at 25±0.6 °C. The hemolymph concentrations of both drugs after intra-sinus dosing were best described by a two-compartment open model. The distribution and elimination half-lives (t_1/2 and t_1/2β) were found to be 0.59 and 33.2 h for oxolinic acid and 0.45 and 24.7 h for oxytetracycline, respectively. The apparent volume of distribution at a steady state (V_ss) and total body clearance (CL_b) were estimated to be 1309 ml/kg and 28.8 ml/kg/h for oxolinic acid and 748 ml/kg and 22.7 ml/kg/h, respectively. The hemolymph concentration–time curves after oral administration did not fit by the nonlinear least squares method using one- and two-compartment model with first-order absorption in either of the drugs. The peak hemolymph concentration (C_max), the time to peak hemolymph concentration (t_max) and the elimination half-life were found to be 17.8 μg/ml, 7 h and 34.3 h for oxolinic acid and 24.3 μg/ml, 10 h and 33.6 h for oxytetracycline, respectively. The bioavailability (F) after oral administration was 32.9% for oxolinic acid and 43.2% for oxytetracycline. The hemolymph protein binding in vivo was determined to be 36.7±8.5% for oxolinic acid and 22.9±4.8% for oxytetracycline.     

恩诺沙星及其代谢产物环丙沙星在拟穴青蟹体内的药代动力学

采用高效液相色谱法,研究盐度33条件下恩诺沙星口灌和肌肉注射给药(剂量10 mg/kg)后,恩诺沙星及其代谢物环丙沙星在拟穴青蟹体内的药代动力学和组织分布。血淋巴和组织中药代动力学参数采用基于统计矩原理的非房室模型进行计算。恩诺沙星口灌和肌肉注射拟穴青蟹给药后,血药达峰快,分别为0.5 h和1 min,达峰浓度分别为12.90和31.86 μg/mL,曲线下面积(AUC)分别为216.1和816.8 μg/(mL·h)。恩诺沙星在拟穴青蟹组织中分布较广,口灌给药下肌肉和肝胰腺AUC分别为445.9和817.6 μg/(g·h),肌肉注射给药下的AUC分别为554.7和2 573.7 μg/(g·h)。与其它水产动物相比,恩诺沙星在拟穴青蟹体内消除速度为中等水平,口灌和肌肉注射恩诺沙星后血药消除半衰期(t_1/2z)分别为26.45和57.02 h,总体清除率(CL_z)分别为0.054和0.012 L/(h·kg)。恩诺沙星在拟穴青蟹体内代谢生成环丙沙星的量较少,口灌给药下血淋巴、肌肉和肝胰腺的AUC_CIP/AUC_ENR分别为6.66%、3.66%和4.78%,肌肉注射给药下,其相应值分别为4.16%、7.24%和1.48%,在拟穴青蟹体内起药效作用仍是以恩诺沙星为主。以C_max/MIC、AUC_0-24/MIC评价恩诺沙星在青蟹体内的药效作用,建议给拟穴青蟹以10 mg/kg剂量每隔24小时投喂一次恩诺沙星,对弧菌引起的细菌性疾病具有较好的防治效果。     

Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin and its metabolite ciprofloxacin in Pacific white shrimp <Emphasis Type="Italic">Litopenaeus vannamei</Emphasis> after multiple-dose oral administration

The present study was designed to explore pharmacokinetics (PK) of enrofloxacin and its metabolite ciprofloxacin in Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei after multiple-dose oral administration of enrofloxacin (30 mg/kg dose per 12 h and continuous feeding for 3 days). Enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin concentrations in hemolymph, hepatopancreas, and muscle of the shrimp were simultaneously determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. PK parameters were analyzed based on statistical moment theory. Meanwhile, the relationship of pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics (PK/PD) was established based on drug concentration of hemolymph and in vitro antibacterial activity (MIC value). Results showed faster absorption of enrofloxacin in hemolymph (T_max?=?1 h) and muscles (T_max?=?1 h) than that in hepatopancreas (T_max?=?3 h) after the first oral administration. In multiple-dose oral administration, slight accumulation of enrofloxacin occurred in the hemolymph and hepatopancreas, while in the muscle, enrofloxacin concentration showed a significant decline following multiple administration. Tissue distribution of enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin both followed the order hepatopancreas?>?hemolymph?>?muscle, with significantly higher ciprofloxacin concentration in hepatopancreas than in hemolymph (approximately 10-fold) and muscles (approximately 50-fold), indicating that the hepatopancreas is the main organ involved in metabolism of enrofloxacin in Pacific white shrimp. After multiple-dose administration, C_max/MIC and AUC_0–24/MIC values showed that the therapeutic regimen in this study could be remarkably effective in prevention and treatment of Vibrio infection in Pacific white shrimp.     

土霉素在锯缘青蟹体内的药物代谢和消除规律

采用高效液相色谱法检测土霉素,研究土霉素口灌给药途径下在锯缘青蟹体内的药代动力学。锯缘青蟹口灌给药土霉素50 mg/kg后,其血浆、肌肉和肝胰脏中的药峰浓度分别为16.78±1.98 mg/L、9.39±2.12μg/g和32.12±6.12μg/g,达峰时间分别为4 h、8 h和4 h。血浆中土霉素浓度-时间关系曲线符合一级吸收的二室开放动力学模型。土霉素在锯缘青蟹体内分布广泛,其表观分布容积(Vd)为2.129 L/kg;分布半衰期(t1/2α)和消除半衰期(t1/2β)分别为3.200 h和47.856 h,总体清除率(CLs)为0.063 mL/(kg.h)。肌肉和肝胰脏中土霉素浓度与时间关系的药动学参数采用统计矩原理分析,其消除半衰期(t1/2 z)分别为60.145 h和71.009 h,总体清除率(CLz)分别为0.054 g/(kg.h)和0.037 g/(kg.h)。土霉素在精巢和卵巢中达峰时间分别为8 h和12 h,峰浓度分别为9.83μg/g和10.26μg/g。给药后24 d时,血浆、肌肉、肝胰脏、精巢和卵巢中土霉素含量都已低于0.10μg/g。土霉素在锯缘青蟹体内消除比较缓慢。     

Dopamine modulates the physiological response of the tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon

Levels of glucose, lactate, pO₂, pCO₂, HCO₃⁻, TCO₂, Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻, protein, and oxyhemocyanin in the hemolymph and its osmolality and pH were measured when tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon (13.5 ± 1.5 g body weight), were individually injected with saline or dopamine at 10^− 8, 10^− 7, or 10^− 6 mol shrimp^− 1. Results showed that hemolymph glucose, lactate, pCO₂, HCO₃⁻, and TCO₂ values increased from 2 to 4 h; hemolymph osmolality, Na⁺, and total protein had increased at 2 h; and hemolymph K⁺ decreased from 2 to 8 h after the dopamine injection. All physiological parameters returned to the control values 4–16 h after receiving dopamine. The dopamine injection also significantly decreased the oxyhemocyanin/protein ratio of P. monodon which occurred at 2 h, resulting from an elevation of hemolymph protein and a slight decrease of oxyhemocyanin. These results suggest that stress-inducing dopamine caused a transient period of modulation of energy metabolism, osmoregulation, respiration, and the acid–base balance in P. monodon in adapting to this environmental stress.     

恩诺沙星及其代谢产物在中华绒螯蟹血淋巴中的比较药代动力学

研究了不同水温(16℃、25℃)、不同给药剂量(10 mg/kg、20 mg/kg)和不同给药方式(肌注、口灌)等条件下,恩诺沙星及其代谢产物环丙沙星在中华绒螯蟹体内的药代动力学,比较了不同条件下药物在蟹血淋巴中的吸收、分布和代谢的差异。结果表明,恩诺沙星在蟹血淋巴中的药-时数据符合开放式二室模型。16℃时以10 mg/kg剂量肌注给药后,恩诺沙星在蟹血淋巴的主要药代动力学参数为:AUC96.818 mg/(L.h),Cmax6.54μg/mL,t1/2α0.851 h,t1/2β95.415 h;25℃时以10 mg/kg剂量肌注给药后,恩诺沙星的主要药代动力学参数为:AUC168.457 mg/(L.h),Cmax7.12μg/mL,t1/2α0.58h,t1/2β88.833 h;25℃时以20 mg/kg剂量肌注给药后,恩诺沙星的主要药代动力学参数为:AUC155.612 mg/(L.h),Cmax11.045μg/mL,t1/2α5.239h,t1/2β88.378 h;25℃时以10 mg/kg剂量口灌给药后,恩诺沙星的主要药代动力学参数为:AUC86.525 mg/(L.h),Cmax3.469μg/mL,t1/2α8.071h,t1/2β61.842 h。不同条件下,恩诺沙星在蟹血淋巴中的主要药代动力学参数差异较大。恩诺沙星的活性代谢产物环丙沙星在各种给药条件下的蟹血淋巴中均能检出,但含量均处于较低值,且药-时数据不能用房室模型拟合,表明恩诺沙星在蟹体内只有极少部分代谢为环丙沙星。     

恩诺沙星对凡纳滨对虾(Litopenaeus vannamei) CYP2基因表达及氨基比林-N-脱甲基酶活性的影响

以凡纳滨对虾(Litopenaeus vannamei)为研究对象,运用RT-PCR方法测定CYP2基因在凡纳滨对虾组织中的表达分布,并分析不同剂量恩诺沙星对凡纳滨对虾肝胰腺中CYP2基因表达和氨基比林-N-脱甲基酶(APND)活性的影响.结果显示,CYP2在肝胰腺、鳃、血淋巴、肌肉、甲壳、肠、胃、心脏和眼柄中均有分布,在肝胰腺中表达量最高,胃次之,血淋巴中表达量最低.口服低(15 mg/kg)、中(30 mg/kg)、高(60 mg/kg)3个剂量恩诺沙星药饵后,凡纳滨对虾肝胰腺中CYP2基因表达和APND活性较对照组均呈现下降趋势;药物浓度越高,基因表达量和酶活性越低,表明恩诺沙星可抑制CYP2在凡纳滨对虾体内的表达.在生产实践中联合用药时,应考虑到因恩诺沙星对CYP2的抑制作用而导致经其代谢的药物在生物体内的蓄积和毒性增强.     

Purification and partial characterization of Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase from haemolymph of Oriental river prawn Macrobrachium nipponense

The copper plus zinc superoxide dismutase (Cu, Zn-SOD) was purified from haemolymph of the Oriental river prawn, Macrobrachium nipponense and partially characterized. Partial protein precipitation in crude extract was affected by using heat treatment and (NH₄)₂SO₄ fractionated precipitation methods. Fractionation of superoxide dismutase was performed by DEAE-cellulose 32 ion-exchange chromatography and followed by CM-cellulose cation-exchange chromatography. The molecular weight of it was about 66.1 kDa, as judged by SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The enzyme was sensitive to cyanide and H₂O₂, and contained 1.08 ± 0.14 atom of copper and 0.98 ± 0.11 zinc per subunit shown in atomic absorption spectroscopy, which revealed that purified SOD was Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase. The purified enzyme had an absorption peak of 269 nm in ultraviolet region and the enzyme remained stable at 25–45 °C within 60 min. But it was rapidly inactivated at higher temperature (50 °C). The activity of purified shrimp Cu, Zn-SOD was remained stable over the range pH 5.8–8.3. Treated with 10 mM mercaptoethanol, the enzyme activity significantly increased. However, the enzyme activity was obviously inhibited by 10 mM CaCl₂, ZnCl₂, SDS, EDTA–Na₂ and 1 mM and 10 mM K₂Cr₂O₇. The results showed that it might be a kind of EC-SOD. And it was the first report of some characterizations of this EC-SOD in M. nipponense.     

恩诺沙星在凡纳滨对虾体内和体外肝微粒体中的代谢产物比较分析

采用超高效液相色谱-四级杆-飞行时间质谱(UPLC/Q-TOF MS)对恩诺沙星在凡纳滨对虾(Litopenaeus vannamei)体内和体外肝胰腺微粒体孵育下的代谢产物进行定性分析。体内试验为凡纳滨对虾口灌30 mg.kg-1恩诺沙星,24 h后采集血浆用于代谢产物分析。体外试验为在含有肝微粒体的NADPH体系中加入恩诺沙星(100μM)进行孵育,检测孵育液中的代谢产物;肝胰腺采集自未给药的凡纳滨对虾,超速离心法制备而得。凡纳滨对虾血淋巴中除以恩诺沙星原形药物为主外,还可检测到少量的N-去乙基代谢产物环丙沙星、环丙沙星哌嗪环开环代谢物及其同分异构体;而在肝胰腺微粒体体外孵育体系中除检测到原形药物外,只有少量的N-去乙基代谢物环丙沙星。无论是体内还是体外,代谢产物生成量都很少,但环丙沙星是主要代谢产物。推测恩诺沙星在凡纳滨对虾体内的代谢反应主要是脱乙基反应和加氢还原反应,而在体外肝胰腺微粒体恩诺沙星代谢的反应主要是脱乙基反应。     

Study on the pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in the Chinese mitten-handed crab, Eriocheir sinensis, after different administration regimes

A pharmacokinetic study on enrofloxacin (ENR) following different administration regimes (i.e. intramuscular, oral and bath administrations) was carried out for the Chinese mitten-handed crab ( Eriocheir sinensis ) at 17 °C water temperature. Muscle and hepatopancreas samples were collected at each sampling time of 1 and 10 min and 0.5, 1, 2, 8, 16, 24, 48, 72 and 168 h for intramuscular administration and 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 168 h for oral and bath administration. The levels of ENR and ciprofloxacin (CIP) were simultaneously determined ( n =5) by high-performance liquid chromatography. The results showed that similar absorption and elimination patterns of ENR level in muscle and hepatopancreas were observed for oral administration and bath treatment; however, the trend in ENR level changes in muscle and hepatopancreas after intramuscular administration was quite different from oral and bath treatments. Meanwhile, the level of ENR in hepatopancreas was much higher than that in muscle for the same administration regimes. The concentration–time data were analysed with the Practical Pharmacokinetics Program (3P97), and the kinetic profiles of ENR in the hepatopancreas and muscle conformed to two-compartment models. The absorption and elimination of ENR in hepatopancreas for bath treatment were faster than those for oral and intramuscular administrations. However, the pattern was quite different in muscle. The fastest absorption and elimination of ENR in muscle were seen for intramuscular administration.     

Impact of starvation and handling stress on rigor development and quality of Atlantic salmon (Salmon salar L)

Farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L) were fed to satiation or starved for 35 d, and subjected to acute pre-slaughter stress or careful handling before slaughtering. Rigor development, post-mortem energy metabolism and quality variations were analysed during 72 h cold storage. The body weight averaged 2.9 and 3.5 kg of the fed and starved salmon, respectively. The starved salmon had lower condition factor (0.99 vs. 1.11) and higher slaughter yield (92.6 vs. 87.5%), but the fat content was similar (11.8–12.9%) in the fed and starved salmon. The initial glycogen level was lower in the starved salmon (21 vs. 29 μmol g^− 1), whereas initial ATP levels (6.4–6.6 μmol g^− 1) were not affected by starvation. Pre-slaughter stress accelerated rigor development, stimulated lactate formation through post-mortem glycolysis, and increased the breakdown of ATP and CP. The effect of stress on rigor development was less pronounced in starved salmon, and a significant interaction was observed between nutritional status and stress. Rigor development was closely correlated to ATP breakdown, especially in fillets. Acute stress accelerated flesh softening during ice storage. After 72 h storage, the fillets of the starved salmon exposed to careful slaughter handling had the significantly firmest texture, whereas the most intense fillet colour was observed in the starved/stressed salmon. Liquid leakage from the muscle during cold storage was lower in the starved salmon, but pre-slaughter stress had no significant impact. It is concluded that a starvation period of five weeks can improve the resistant to acute stress prior to slaughtering of Atlantic salmon that in turn hampers rigor development.     

Effects of Cu-exchanged montmorillonite on growth performance, microbial ecology and intestinal morphology of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

A total of 360 Nile tilapia at an average initial body weight of 3.9 g were randomly allocated to 4 treatments, each of which had three replicates of 30 fish/tank and used to investigate the effects of Cu²⁺-exchanged montmorillonite (Cu-MMT) on growth performance, microbial ecology of the skin, gill and intestine, and intestinal morphology. The dietary treatments were: 1) basal diet, 2) basal diet + 1.5 g/kg MMT, 3) basal diet + 30 mg/kg copper as CuSO₄ (equivalent to the copper in the Cu-MMT treatment group), or 4) basal diet + 1.5 g/kg Cu-MMT. The results showed that supplementation with Cu-MMT significantly improved growth performance as compared to control and fish fed with Cu-MMT had higher growth performance than those fed with MMT or CuSO₄. Supplementation with Cu-MMT reduced (P < 0.05) the total intestinal aerobic bacterial counts and affected the composition of intestinal microflora with a tendency of Aeromonas, Vibrio, Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium, Acinetobacter, Alcaligence, Enterobacteriaceae decreasing as compared with control. Measurements of villus and microvillus heights at different sites of the intestinal mucosa indicated that dietary addition of MMT or Cu-MMT improved intestinal mucosal morphology. However, the microbial ecology of the skin and gill was not affected by the addition of CuSO₄, MMT or Cu-MMT. Supplementation with CuSO₄ had no (P > 0.05) effect on the growth performance, microbial ecology and intestinal morphology. The results showed that Cu-MMT exhibited antibacterial activity in vivo and protected intestinal mucosa from invasion of pathogenic bacterium and toxins, resulting in a positive effect on the growth performance.     

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone facilitates hypermelanosis on the non-eyed side of the barfin flounder, a pleuronectiform fish

A pleuronectiform fish, the barfin flounder, Verasper moseri, is promising for aquaculture and resource enhancement in Northern Japan due to its high commercial value. Hypermelanosis of its non-eyed side, which frequently occurs under culture conditions, diminishes its commercial value. Two peptide hormones, melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) and melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), having opposing actions, are associated with the color changes of fish. We have previously reported the positive effect of MCH in preventing hypermelanosis. Here, we examined the effects of MSH on the occurrence of hypermelanosis. A single injection of Des-Ac--MSH [0.01 nmol/g–10 nmol/g (0.016 μg–16 μg/g)] did not change the eyed-side body color, while a single injection of MCH [0.1 nmol/g (0.21 μg/g)] made the eyed-side color paler. No difference was observed in eyed-side lightness between fish injected with MCH (0.1 nmol/g) and those receiving MCH (0.1 nmol/g) and an increased amount of Des-Ac--MSH (0.01 nmol/g–10 nmol/g) simultaneously. These results indicate that MSH does not suppress the in vivo body color-paling effects of MCH in barfin flounders. On the other hand, implantation of a cholesterol pellet containing Des-Ac--MSH (280 μg, twice at 29-day interval) increased hypermelanosis of the non-eyed side of barfin flounders compared to control fish. Eyed-side bodies of MSH-treated fish were darker than control fish; thus, MSH is involved in morphological color change including ectopic melanin synthesis in non-eyed-side skin.     

Thyroid gland development in Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis Kaup 1858) during early life stages: A histochemical and immunohistochemical approach

A key to success in the culture of marine fish species is the mass production of high quality fry, a process largely dependent on successful first feeding and normal development and growth of fish larvae. In this regard it is important to examine the structural and functional development of the endocrine system (pituitary, thyroid, interrenal glands) during early ontogeny of marine fish. Particularly, the thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T₄) and triiodothyronine (T₃), influence numerous metabolic processes, such as growth, differentiation, metamorphosis, reproduction, respiration, migratory behaviour, central nervous system activity, seasonal adaptation, etc. Therefore the aim of this study was to describe the development of the thyroid gland and the ontogeny appearance of the thyroid hormones in Solea senegalensis larvae by means of histological and immunohistochemical techniques. The first thyroid follicle was present at 4 days-post-hatch (dph) coinciding with first feeding. During metamorphosis (12–20 dph) the follicles increased in both number and size, and by 30 dph presented the same characteristics as that seen in adult fish. Tissue immunostaining of both thyroid hormones decreased during the endogenous larvae development to nearly undetectable levels at the completion of yolk-sac absorption. During larvae exogenous phase, T₃ and T₄ immunostaining was first detected by 6 dph and an increase of specific staining for both hormones was detected between 12 and 20 dph, during metamorphosis phase.     

Physiological changes in rainbow trout held under crowded conditions and fed diets with different levels of vitamins E and C and highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA)

Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) maintained in crowded (100 kg m^− 3) and uncrowded (20 kg m^− 3) conditions were fed 42 days with five experimental diets having different levels of vitamin E (25.6 and 275.6 mg kg diet^− 1), C (0 and 1000 mg kg diet^− 1) and HUFA (highly unsaturated fatty acids, 12.5 and 320.5 g kg diet^− 1): −E−HUFA, −E+HUFA, +E−HUFA, +E+HUFA, −C+E+HUFA. Cortisol, plasma metabolites, tissue glycogen, fish composition, and tissue fatty-acid profile were evaluated at the end of the experimental period. In general, no changes in cortisol levels were associated with crowding, although +E+HUFA and −C+E+HUFA fish showed higher levels (mean ± SE, 55.5 ± 11.1 and 78.0 ± 11.3 ng ml^− 1) as a consequence of a possible interaction between chronic crowding and diet composition. Protein and glucose con-centration in plasma displayed no effect of crowding, but liver glycogen showed a general tendency to decrease in −E−HUFA, −E+HUFA, +E−HUFA, +E+HUFA, −C+E+HUFA crowded groups (70.2 ± 2.1, 52.1 ± 2.5, 73.4 ± 7.4, 91.7 ± 3.3, 74.2 ± 8.4 mg g^− 1 tissue, respectively) compared to uncrowded groups (108.9 ± 14.2, 82.7 ± 8.8, 92.4 ± 10.7, 99.1 ± 10.0, 103.5 ± 15.6 mg g^− 1 tissue, respectively), thus proving significant in −E+HUFA fish. Variations in total lipids, triglycerides, total cholesterol and HDL as well as LDL cholesterol in plasma were manifested under crowding conditions, displaying a certain influence of vitamin E and HUFA dietary content. Final body composition, in general, showed no change attributable to fish density, but some differences associated with diet composition were found in lipid and moisture percentages of crowded fish. Liver and muscle fatty-acid profile revealed a clear effect of the dietary lipid source that was more evident in muscle than in liver at normal fish density, and in some cases this effect was modulated by dietary vitamin E and C content and fish-culture conditions.     

Metabolic scope, swimming performance and the effects of hypoxia in the mulloway, Argyrosomus japonicus (Pisces: Sciaenidae)

The culture of the mulloway (Argyrosomus japonicus), like many other Sciaenidae fishes, is rapidly growing. However there is no information on their metabolic physiology. In this study, the effects of various hypoxia levels on the swimming performance and metabolic scope of juvenile mulloway (0.34 ± 0.01 kg, mean ± SE, n = 30) was investigated (water temperature = 22 °C). In normoxic conditions (dissolved oxygen = 6.85 mg l^− 1), mulloway oxygen consumption rate (M·o₂) increased exponentially with swimming speed to a maximum velocity (U_crit) of 1.7 ± < 0.1 body lengths s^− 1 (BL s^− 1) (n = 6). Mulloway standard metabolic rate (SMR) was typical for non-tuna fishes (73 ± 8 mg kg^− 1 h^− 1) and they had a moderate scope for aerobic metabolism (5 times the SMR). Mulloway minimum gross cost of transport (GCOT_min, 0.14 ± 0.01 mg kg^− 1 m^− 1) and optimum swimming velocity (U_opt, 1.3 ± 0.2 BL s^− 1) were comparable to many other body and caudal fin swimming fish species. Energy expenditure was minimum when swimming between 0.3 and 0.5 BL s^− 1. The critical dissolved oxygen level was 1.80 mg l^− 1 for mulloway swimming at 0.9 BL s^− 1. This reveals that mulloway are well adapted to hypoxia, which is probably adaptive from their natural early life history within estuaries. In all levels of hypoxia (75% saturation = 5.23, 50% = 3.64, and 25% = 1 .86 mg l^− 1), M·o₂ increased linearly with swimming speed and active metabolic rate (AMR) was reduced (218 ± 17, 202 ± 14 and 175 ± 10 mg kg^− 1 h^− 1 for 75%, 50% and 25% saturation respectively). However, U_crit was only reduced at 50% and 25% saturation (1.4 ± < 0.1 and 1.4 ± < 0.1 BL s^− 1 respectively). This demonstrates that although the metabolic capacity of mulloway is reduced in mild hypoxia (75% saturation) they are able to compensate to maintain swimming performance. GCOT_min (0.09 ± 0.01 mg kg^− 1 m^− 1) and U_opt (0.8 ± 0.1 BL s^− 1) were significantly reduced at 25% dissolved oxygen saturation. As mulloway metabolic scope was significantly reduced at all hypoxia levels, it suggests that even mild hypoxia may reduce growth productivity.     

Effects of dietary estradiol-17β in juvenile shortnose sturgeon, Acipenser brevirostrum, Lesueur

Shortnose sturgeon, Acipenser brevirostrum, were fed estradiol-17β (E₂) in commercial salmon feed in two separate experiments, with the aim of creating all-female populations for aquaculture. In the first experiment, 5-month-old fish were fed 0 (control), 10, 50 and 100 mg E₂/kg feed during a 9-month trial starting in September. This experiment was confounded by copper contamination of the heated water source that appeared to cause E₂-dose-dependent mortality. As a result, a second, parallel experiment was conducted on the same year class of fish starting at age 7 months in November, but with hormone dosage reduced to 0, 10, 25 and 50 mg E₂/kg feed in a 7-month trial. In both experiments, control and 10 mg E₂/kg groups remained active and fed well, but the other fish were less active and fed less as E₂ dosage increased. Histological observations indicated that anatomical differentiation of the ovaries had begun in 3 of 5 individuals examined at the start of Experiment 2. In January, sub-samples of 6 fish from each group showed that E₂-treated fish had mottled livers, swollen kidneys and reduced gonad size. The number of hepatocytes and their staining characteristics were similar in both the control and 10 mg E₂/kg groups. At 25 mg E₂/kg and higher, the number of hepatocytes and the presence and quantity of yolk protein increased with the E₂ dosage. At final sampling in May, all of the treatment groups showed some individuals with these pathologies evident macroscopically, and their frequency and severity increased with E₂ dosage such that all individuals of the 100 mg E₂/kg group were affected. In general, fish grew better and had lower mortality in Experiment 2 (8.5%, as compared to 15.2% for Experiment 1) during the period of E₂ treatment. Final sampling revealed that all treated fish were apparently feminized in both experiments, based on anatomical differentiation of the gonads. Control groups, on the other hand, were 65 and 58% female in Experiments 1 and 2, respectively.     

Effects of dissolved oxygen on hemolymph parameters of freshwater giant prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii (de Man)

Profiles of changes in physiological parameters of freshwater giant prawns, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, exposed to various dissolved oxygen (DO) levels of 7.75, 4.75, 2.75, and 1.75 mg l⁻¹ are reported. The parameters involved in osmoregulation and oxygen transport were monitored for a 6-day period. Notable depressions in hemolymph osmolality, Na⁺, K⁺, and Cl⁻ contents were observed within 24 h after exposure to hypoxia at 2.75 and 1.75 mg O₂ l⁻¹, and thereafter remained at rather steady levels, which were significantly lower than those under normoxic conditions (4.75–7.75 mg O₂ l⁻¹). The extent of depression of osmotic-related constituents, hemolymph osmolality and Cl⁻ in particular, increased with decreased DO.

Oxyhemocyanin constituted 65.46–65.84% of total hemolymph proteins under the various DO levels examined; both hemolymph oxyhemocyanin and proteins showed notable elevations 24 h after exposure to hypoxic conditions, and reached the highest and constant level by 48 h after exposure. The compensatory responses of prawns to reduced O₂ were manifested by increased O₂ uptake through augmentation of hemocyanin, which results in enhancement of oxygen binding capacity of the hemolymph. In the same period, a significant surge of the respiratory products, PCO₂ and HCO₃⁻, was also demonstrated 6 h after exposure to hypoxic conditions which resulted in hemolymph alkalosis. These processes likely resulted in an increase in water influx and consequent declines in hemolymph osmolality and ion composition. Furthermore, hyperventilation and respiratory alkalosis, indicated by increased oxyhemocyanin and pH, respectively, were found to be predominant responses of M. rosenbergii to hypoxic stress.     

复方磺胺嘧啶口灌给药在拟穴青蟹(Scylla paramamosain)体内药动学和组织分布与消除

研究了水温为(27±1)℃、盐度为10条件下,单剂量(100 mg/kg)口灌给药复方磺胺嘧啶(磺胺嘧啶SD:甲氧苄啶TMP=5:1)后,SD和TMP在拟穴青蟹(Scylla paramamosain)体内的药动学以及在肌肉、肝胰腺和鳃组织中的分布和消除规律.结果显示,拟穴青蟹口灌复方磺胺嘧啶后,血淋巴中SD和TMP药物浓度-时间关系曲线均符合一级吸收二室模型,SD和TMP的峰浓度(Cmax)分别为49.56 mg/L和2.79 mg/L,药时曲线下面积(AUC)分别为1417.6 mg/L.h和82.7 mg/L·h;肝胰腺是SD和TMP峰浓度最高的组织,其Cmax分别为59.36 mg/kg和74.82 mg/kg.由此可见,大量TMP蓄积在肝胰腺中,进入血液循环的TMP很少.在鳃组织中,SD和TMP的Cmax分别为51.89 mg/kg和42.58 mg/kg,消除半衰期分别为23.28 h和25.29 h;鳃组织中药物浓度比较高,且消除速度较快,推测其在药物代谢中承担着消除功能.在肌肉中,SD和TMP的Cmax分别为44.95 mg/kg和10.09 mg/kg,消除半衰期分别为25.09 h和35.08 h.以0.1 mg/kg和0.05 mg/kg分别为SD和TMP的最高残留限量(MRL),95％置信区间,推算SD和TMP在拟穴青蟹肌肉中的理论休药期分别为290.6 h和302.8 h,在肝胰腺中分别为340.4 h和377.0 h.     

Energy balance of Litopenaeus vannamei postlarvae fed on animal or vegetable protein based compounded feeds

L. vannamei postlarvae are normally raised with a protein dense diet (50% protein) rich in fishmeal. Part of the protein is utilized for energy purpose instead of protein synthesis. Based on a previous energy partitioning study, the effects of two isoenergetic compounded feed treatments – animal protein (AP) and vegetable protein and carbohydrates (VPC) – upon growth efficiency and energy budget of shrimp postlarvae and early juveniles were determined. Recovered energy (RE) or production (P) after 50 days trial was similar (2 J day^− 1) in both treatments, from PL₁₄ to PL₁₉. However, early juveniles discriminated between animal protein (116 J day^− 1) and vegetable protein and carbohydrates (88 J day^− 1). The difference in respiration indicated a higher heat increment with AP compared to VPC. At maintenance level, energy used was lower with AP than VPC treatment. Postlarvae and early juveniles employed protein as a main energy substrate (O:N < 20). Differences in the efficiencies observed in the calculated energy budget were attributed to the presence of carbohydrates in diet and not to the protein source. The advantage of incorporating vegetable protein source in the diet of harvesting shrimp may eventually contribute towards a reduction of fishmeal costs and waste products as well as to achieve sustainable shrimp farming.