Responses of anuran diversity to wetland characteristics and surrounding landscape in the Southern Andean Yungas,Argentina

1. Modification and loss of natural habitats caused by human activities are among the main drivers of biodiversity decline worldwide. To evaluate how land‐use changes affect species diversity at different spatial scales, amphibians represent an excellent group given that their complex life cycle requires both aquatic and terrestrial habitats.
2. In this study, the influence of wetland characteristics and surrounding landscape features on richness and functional diversity of anurans was investigated in 26 natural wetlands in a human‐modified landscape within the Southern Andean Yungas.
3. The analysis was performed at two spatial scales: wetland scale (the breeding pond structure) and the surrounding landscape scale. The classification of the landscape was limited to land uses modified by human activities within concentric circular buffers (radius = 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, and 1 km) centred on each breeding pond.
4. Generalized linear models were applied to investigate the relationship between environmental variables measured at different scales and anuran species richness and functional diversity, respectively.
5. Pond area best explained the observed variation in both diversity measures, which is consistent with other studies on anuran diversity in disturbed landscapes. In contrast to regression models including landscape scale variables only, integrated models (which included variables on both scales) highly improved model fit.
6. Conservation strategies for anuran species diversity in these altered Andean Yungas forests should include efforts to maintain or restore aquatic habitats (e.g. breeding ponds) placed within suitable landscapes.
7. Successful long‐term management will require an understanding of relationships between habitat characteristics at different spatial scales to identify variables that relate to species diversity in such heterogeneous habitats.

     

The significance of meandering channel morphology on the diversity and abundance of macroinvertebrates in a lowland river in Japan

• 1. Many rivers and streams across the world have been channelized for various purposes. Channel cross‐sections of meandering rivers are asymmetrical and have cross‐sectional diversity in their physical environment; cross‐sections of a channelized river are typically trapezoidal and have little cross‐sectional diversity, both in physical and ecological conditions. Several programmes to restore stream meanders have been undertaken to improve river ecosystems degraded by channelization. However, the association between diversification in the physical environment due to meander restoration and the macroinvertebrate community structure is poorly known.
• 2. This study of a lowland river in Japan assessed how the cross‐sectional diversity of the physical environment changed with restoration of a meander in a channelized river, and how the macroinvertebrate communities responded to the changes in physical habitat variation. Comparisons were made between the macroinvertebrate communities of a channelized reach, the restored meandering reach, and a natural meandering reach.
• 3. Natural meandering and restored meandering reaches showed higher cross‐sectional diversity in physical variables and total taxon richness across a reach than did the channelized reach. Almost all taxa observed in the natural and restored meandering reaches were concentrated in the shallowest marginal habitats near the banks. Shear velocity increasing with water depth had a negative association with macroinvertebrate density and richness.
• 4. This study demonstrated that the shallow river bed along the inside of bends formed point bars that provided a highly stable substrate, a suitable habitat for macroinvertebrates in a lowland river. It is concluded that meander restoration could be an effective strategy for in‐stream habitat restoration in lowland meandering rivers.

Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Assessment of a terrestrial protected area for the conservation of freshwater biodiversity

1. Freshwater ecosystems are essential to human well-being and most have high biodiversity. However, this biodiversity has been suffering severe declines owing to the expansion of human activities. Protected areas (PAs) are essential for biodiversity conservation and have proved to be successful in stopping species extirpation if managed properly. Unfortunately, they are usually focused on terrestrial biodiversity, leaving freshwater ecosystems aside.
2. The main goal of this study was to determine the influence of a PA (Montesinho Natural Park (MNP), Portugal) on freshwater biodiversity. Aquatic macroinvertebrates and fishes were surveyed, and biodiversity (richness, abundance, Shannon-Wiener diversity, and Pielou's evenness) and water quality (IASPT) indices were calculated inside, at the periphery and outside the MNP.
3. Results showed that the PA does not affect positively either water quality or the two faunal groups monitored. Macroinvertebrate communities were not influenced by the PA; however, the abundance of pearl mussel Margaritifera margaritifera was significantly higher and size was significantly lower inside the MNP. The richness and abundance of fish communities were significantly higher outside the MNP, except for trout Salmo trutta abundance which was higher inside the MNP.
4. Given these results, the MNP does not guarantee the safeguard of overall aquatic biodiversity and habitats and we propose an extension of MNP to downstream areas in order to increase the number of species (mostly cyprinids) under legal protection. This work demonstrates that terrestrial PA planning and management should also consider aquatic biodiversity to achieve successful conservation.

     

Control of ecosystem state in a shallow,brackish lake: implications for the conservation of stonewort communities

• 1. The alternative stable states hypothesis for the behaviour of shallow lake communities requires switches to transform clear-water macrophyte-dominated communities to turbid algal-dominated ones. Such switches have rarely been demonstrated experimentally. This study shows the role of rising salinity as such a switch while contributing a solution to the conservation problems of an important nature reserve.
• 2. Hickling Broad changed from a clear-water, charophyte-dominated lake to a turbid, phytoplankton-dominated lake in the early 1970s, probably owing to guanotrophication by gulls and to increased salinity from more intensive pumping of the agricultural land that separates its main inflow from the nearby North Sea. Following a decline in nutrient loading as the gull flock moved away, the plants began to return during the 1980s and 1990s. In 1998/99, the water cleared and charophytes, including some very rare species, were abundant.
• 3. This was welcome to conservation bodies, but the vigorous growth precluded competitive sailing and there were conflicts with the local sailing club. The plants, however, began an irregular decline in 2000, though nutrient loadings and other conventional chemical drivers have remained steady.
• 4. Our hypothesis was that the unstable nature of the plant community was linked to high salinity, and that if salinity were lowered there would be vigorous and reliable growth, enabling annual cutting of plants to allow sailing races. In an experiment using mesocosms, salinities straddling the current values in the Broad led to declines in plant biomass, macrophyte species richness and macrophyte Shannon–Weaver diversity through increased release of phosphorus from the sediments, increased algal turbidity and reduction of zooplankton grazer activity.
• 5. Stabilization of the plant community of Hickling Broad would be achieved by a reduction of present salinities by about 20%. This would be possible by use of existing Environmentally Sensitive Area (High Level Environmental Stewardship) arrangements or diversion of some pumped drainage water to the sea. There remain some uncertainties about the future of the area because of rising sea levels.

Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Restoring wetland biodiversity using research: Whole‐community facilitation by beaver as framework

• 1. Wetlands are declining worldwide, and there is a great need for their restoration and creation. One natural agent of wetland engineering is beavers, Castor spp., which have returned or are returning to many parts of their former range.
• 2. We initially studied the facilitative effect of the beaver Castor canadensis on a waterbird community consisting of three waders and four ducks in boreal wetlands in southern Finland. Both waterbird species diversity and abundance increased when beavers impounded a pond. Common teal Anas crecca and green sandpiper Tringa ochropus were the species showing the most positive numerical response, but the other five species also increased upon flooding.
• 3. This article evaluates how the results of the study have been used in management, both in theory and practice. The whole‐community facilitation concept has been taken up in numerous articles considering the restorative effects of beavers. It has also been used as ecological background when planning and executing man‐made wetland projects in Finland within both the public and the private sectors.
• 4. Our study and its publication in Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems have set a foundation for further evidence‐based management of waterbird communities. As the results show, having beavers as wetland managers is a feasible tool for creating and restoring wetlands for waterbirds and other biota. Moreover, wetland restoration projects are becoming more popular endeavours, owing to an understanding of the diverse benefits of wetlands. Flooding by beavers is used as a model for managers when creating man‐made wetlands; for example, in urban areas where it is difficult to maintain beavers.

     

Exploring environmental predictors of aquatic macrophytes in water‐dependent Natura 2000 sites of high conservation value: Results from a long‐term study of macrophytes in Greek lakes

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Inter‐annual variability in amphibian assemblages: implications for diversity assessment and conservation

• 1. Diversity assessments and conservation management should take into account the dynamic nature of populations and communities, particularly when they are subject to highly variable and unpredictable environmental conditions.
• 2. This study evaluates the inter‐annual variability in the assemblage composition (temporal turnover) of an amphibian community breeding in a highly dynamic habitat, a Mediterranean temporary pond system, during a 4‐year period.
• 3. A comprehensive framework is provided to evaluate temporal turnover from data of a differing nature (species richness, presence/absence and relative abundance) and, especially, to discern variation in richness (species loss) from changes in the identity or abundance of species (species replacement).
• 4. Results show that the pond amphibian assemblages in Doñana National Park exhibited high inter‐annual variability during the study period, both in the number of species, species identity and their relative abundance. This result provides evidence for the inadequacy of surveys conducted only in one breeding season to characterize the species assemblage associated with a given pond. Besides, it suggests that a given pond offers different breeding opportunities over time, being suitable for different species depending on the year. This alternation will contribute to the medium‐term preservation of all species in the assemblage.
• 5. It is highly relevant to preserve the natural dynamism and spatial variability of temporary pond systems, which will favour the conservation of populations through their intrinsic variability. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

     

The lake at Llandrindod Wells—a restoration comedy?

• 1. The lake at Llandrindod Wells, Wales, UK, is a typical urban shallow lake. Created in the 19th century for amenity, it has a long history of management for various, often conflicting, purposes. After the 1950s, the once clear water became turbid with phytoplankton, and aquatic plants became very scarce.
• 2. The most likely reason for this was introduction of common carp, for angling, into a fish community that contained no piscivores. Mobilization of phosphorus from the sediments by activities of the fish led to severe internal phosphorus loading, culminating ultimately in a requirement to close the lake, temporarily in summer, to water contact activities, because of a risk of toxic cyanophyte blooms.
• 3. The lake‐owners decided to restore the lake to greater amenity and conservation value by biomanipulation of the fish community and associated works. The restoration was successful in restoring clear water and plant communities, but because of the nature of the plants reintroduced, there were new problems of dense plant growth. Ownership of the lake then changed and, in a somewhat confused situation, the lake has been returned to a carp fishery.
• 4. Documents on the history of management of the lake, and available limnological data, are reviewed in relation to a general strategy for lake restoration and general lessons are drawn for future restoration projects.

Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A spatio‐temporal long‐term assessment on the ecological response of reef communities in a Caribbean marine protected area

1. Coral reef biodiversity is rapidly decreasing as a result of the loss of coral cover, which modifies the structure and functioning of the ecosystem. Understanding how coral reef communities respond in space and over the long term is essential in order to implement management strategies and reduce the effects of biodiversity loss on coral reefs.
2. Fish, coral, and algae communities were used as indicators to evaluate changes in coral reef systems. The variation of these communities was studied in a marine protected area composed of three management zones in Cozumel Coral Reef National Park in Quintana Roo, Mexico, over a period of 11 years (2004–2014). The following parameters were monitored annually: (i) total fish density; (ii) fish trophic group densities; (iii) species richness and three fish diversity indices; (iv) relative scleractinian coral cover; and (v) relative macroalgae cover.
3. In the years in which coastal development, such as the construction of a marina, took place, an increase in the abundance of territorial herbivorous and planktivorous fish was observed. As the coral recovered, macrocarnivores and sessile benthic invertivores were re‐established, whereas scraper herbivores showed no changes in the period of study in any of the three management zones.
4. Coral cover recovery showed rapid phase‐shift reversal (phase‐shift, macroalgae dominance over coral) in the three zones. Even though the fish density and coral cover recovered, the diversity indices of each fish trophic group exhibited a reduction in the three management zones over time.

     

Constrained by aliens,shifting landscape,or poor water quality? Factors affecting the persistence of amphibians in an urban pond network

1. Freshwater communities and especially pond‐breeding amphibians are extremely vulnerable to land‐use change, alien species introductions and the use of pesticides or other toxic chemicals, as reflected in their worldwide decline. Effective conservation and management of ponds requires a better understanding of the biotic and abiotic factors that shape diversity patterns and species distribution, especially in cases of habitat loss
2. The present study aimed to reveal and classify which pond and landscape characteristics are the most important determinants for the occurrence patterns of amphibian species as well as for the overall amphibian species richness in an urban pond network. To achieve this aim, 17 biotic and abiotic variables were measured for 61 ponds and the dataset was analysed by means of a machine‐learning approach, suitability indices and co‐occurrence modelling
3. The highest probability of Triturus macedonicus occurrence was found at fishless artificial and semi‐natural ponds. The persistence of Lissotriton graecus in ponds was predicted by high pond connectivity and the absence of fish reflecting the species dispersive potential. Pelophylax kurtmuelleri showed a higher probability of occurrence with increased pond connectivity and macrophyte cover.
4. Amphibian species richness was higher in fishless ponds with well‐oxygenated waters located in sites with a low to intermediate road density network. Ponds categorized as ‘average’ in terms of newt suitability were more frequently inhabited by fish than Triturus macedonicus. Alien fish species showed negative associations with both newt species, while both newt species showed a positive association between them.
5. The results support the view that conserving a greater number of water bodies with increased landscape connectivity and without any fish presence could provide amphibian species with alternative habitat choices, especially in sites with human pressure where pond stability is at stake owing to continuous landscape changes.

     

Aquatic macroinvertebrates from littoral vegetated lakes in arid Patagonia: The influence of fish introduction on community structure

1. Wetlands in arid regions are characterized by their great heterogeneity, often including endemic species that contribute to regional aquatic biodiversity. In the Patagonian steppe, most lakes are naturally fishless and sustain a rich aquatic biodiversity, including endemics; however, many of these lakes have been stocked with Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout) during recent decades. The introduction of predatory fish into aquatic ecosystems naturally devoid of these organisms can produce profound alterations in the structure of the original communities and in the configuration of their biotic assemblages.
2. Aquatic invertebrates play important roles in both the structure and functioning of freshwater ecosystems, including their contribution to global biodiversity and their cascading effects across ecosystem boundaries.
3. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of introduced non-native fish on the pleustonic macroinvertebrate assemblage. Samples were taken from 10 shallow Patagonian lakes (five fishless and five stocked with fish) in two consecutive warm periods.
4. Lakes with fish had higher conductivity and phosphate values. Higher inter-annual differences were also observed in lakes with fish for phytoplanktonic chlorophyll a, nitrate, phosphate, conductivity, and water temperature.
5. The community structure (relative abundance of different taxa, species composition, and diversity index) was affected by the presence of rainbow trout, with the differences mainly driven by the relative abundance of Ostracoda, Hyalella, Chironomidae, and Haliplus species.
6. This approach can be used to assess the required conservation actions in shallow Patagonian steppe lakes, which have been listed as priority areas for waterbird conservation. Specifically, this study provides a baseline for monitoring future trends of the macroinvertebrate communities and for evaluating conservation and management efforts over time.

     

Ditch communities: a major contributor to floodplain biodiversity

• 1. Chalk stream floodplains are extensively managed and the high degree of connectivity associated with water meadows has been severely reduced. The main contributor to aquatic biodiversity is perceived to be the river itself. Ditches in these areas have been largely ignored as a contributor to total diversity.
• 2. Separate surveys of instream, bankside and ditch macroinvertebrates in a small area of floodplain provided a unique opportunity to assess the relative contribution of each locality to total aquatic diversity. The fauna and flora of a ditch on the lower River Frome floodplain was examined and compared with studies of adjacent bankside and instream habitat. A total of 145 macroinvertebrate taxa and 61 plant species were recorded from the ditch. Faunal abundance and richness were positively related to the diversity of aquatic plants. The ditch showed a clear linear trend in community type that appeared to be partly related to the acidic seepage from tertiary deposits at the source and percentage cover of vegetation.
• 3. There were large differences in the numbers of taxa collected in ditch, bankside, instream mesohabitat and RIVPACS surveys. Of the total 202 taxa recorded in the four surveys, the ditch contributed 59 unique taxa with 25 from the bankside and two and three from the mesohabitat and RIVPACS surveys, respectively.
• 4. The large contribution of the Rushton Ditch to aquatic biodiversity on the floodplain is due to three main factors: the chemically different and slow‐flowing environment, the connection to the main river, and a management regime which has halted hydroseral succession at a point where vegetation structure is for the most part open and able to support a wide range of ecological niches. The maintenance of these conditions requires sensitive management and further knowledge of the needs and interactions of faunal communities with vegetation.

Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Environmental influences on the recruitment dynamics of juvenile European eels,Anguilla anguilla,in a small estuary of the Tyrrhenian Sea,Sardinia, Italy

1. The European eel, Anguilla anguilla, is a catadromous and migratory species of commercial importance. Its complex life cycle results in its exposure to many risk factors, which have resulted in stock declines across all life stages since the 1970s.
2. The temporal recruitment dynamics of juvenile eels (glass eels and elvers) were investigated in a small Mediterranean estuary (Sardinia, Italy). The composition of the population and the monthly and seasonal variations in the abundances of juvenile eels was assessed over 78 sampling events (from February 2017 to February 2018). Furthermore, the effects of abiotic variables on the abundances of glass eels and elvers were investigated using generalized additive models (GAMs).
3. Glass eels had the greatest abundance during the winter months, whereas elvers had the greatest abundance during spring. Modelling revealed that the abundance of glass eels was mostly explained by the combined effects of water temperature (12.3–14.5 °C), tidal coefficient (40–110 cm), moon phase, season, and river mouth condition, whereas the abundance of elvers was associated with water temperature (14–21 °C), dissolved oxygen content (>7 mg/L), and season. These results suggest that the annual recruitment of juvenile eels occurs throughout the year, with clear seasonal migration dynamics.
4. The use of multiple statistical approaches allowed us to identify the importance of several environmental variables in regulating the recruitment dynamics, providing useful information for conserving eel stocks through the restoration of the natural flow regime and the connectivity between freshwater habitats and the sea.

     

Long‐term plant community changes in managed fens in Ohio,USA

• 1. Long‐term studies are necessary to describe effects of restoration efforts on plant communities and invasive species in North American fen communities. In 1986, 1999 and 2000, wetland plant communities and abiotic factors were sampled in two fens in Ohio that were actively managed as a state nature preserve since 1986. The correlation between plant species and environmental conditions was examined in 1986 to 2000, and changes in woody plant cover were measured on aerial photographs from 1938 to 1997 to analyse long‐term effects of management practices.
• 2. 142 vascular plant species and 32 bryophyte taxa were found in these rich fens, including 13 rare (i.e. state‐listed as endangered, threatened or potentially threatened) and 14 alien species. TWINSPAN analyses identified nine plant community types, and species distributions were correlated with several abiotic factors (groundwater depth, pH, soil organic content, distance from wetland edge and depth of peat). Communities along the wetland edge in deep peat had higher richness, more woody species, more alien species and fewer rare species than communities in areas near sources of flowing groundwater with more marl and less peat.
• 3. There was little change in species richness, evenness, and Shannon's diversity from 1986 to 2000. However, plant species assemblages changed during the study, and changes were different in unmanipulated transects compared with those where habitat managers removed invasive woody plants. An aerial photograph analysis indicated that woody plant cover increased by about 1% each year during 1938 to 1997 despite current management efforts to remove invasive trees and shrubs. Additional strategies should be directed toward reducing shrub encroachment and invasive species while promoting rare species.

Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ecoacoustics as a novel tool for assessing pond restoration success: Results of a pilot study

1. Ecoacoustics is increasingly being used to monitor species populations and to estimate biodiversity in marine ecosystems, but the underwater soundscapes of freshwater environments remain largely unexplored in this respect. Few studies exist concerning the acoustic diversity of ponds, but because aquatic plants and many arthropods such as Coleoptera and Hemiptera are known to produce sound, there is potential to use ecoacoustic techniques to monitor changes in biodiversity and conservation value.
2. This pilot study compares the underwater soundscapes of recently restored open-canopy ponds and unmanaged highly terrestrialized ponds situated in an arable agricultural landscape of North Norfolk, UK, in order to assess the benefits of farmland pond restoration.
3. Daytime sound recordings were made for 10 min in each pond and analysed primarily for arthropod stridulations. In addition, six commonly used acoustic indices were calculated to assess the soundscape biodiversity between the unmanaged and the restored ponds. The stridulations of three diving beetle species (Dytiscidae) were recorded in tank studies to assess the potential for individual species recognition from underwater sound capture.
4. Sound-type richness and abundance, as estimated by visually and aurally identifying arthropod stridulation from spectrograms, were significantly higher in the restored open-canopy ponds compared with the unmanaged terrestrialized ponds. In addition, the acoustic indices ‘acoustic complexity’ and ‘biodiversity index’ were significantly higher in restored open-canopy ponds than in unmanaged terrestrialized ponds.
5. The three dytiscid water beetle species recorded in a tank were found to produce distinctive and recognizable sounds, indicating potential to create an audio reference library that could be used for automatic acoustic monitoring of freshwater arthropods.
6. Pond soundscapes are rich in biological information and this study suggests that, with further development, automated passive ecoacoustic monitoring could be an effective non-invasive technique for assessing pond conservation value and pond restoration and management success.

     

Taxonomic and functional macroinvertebrate diversity of high-altitude ponds in the Macun Cirque,Switzerland

1. Global environmental change is threatening freshwater biodiversity with ecological impacts predicted to be particularly severe in high-altitude regions. Despite this, an ecological understanding of high-altitude pond networks remains patchy, with only limited knowledge of the environmental and spatial predictors of taxonomic and functional diversity. Moreover, previous studies of pond ecosystems have focused primarily on taxonomic richness and largely overlooked functional diversity.
2. This study examined the influence of local environmental and spatial factors on taxonomic and functional α and β diversity (including the turnover and nestedness-resultant components) of 17 high-altitude (~2,500 m above sea level) pond macroinvertebrate communities, in the Macun Cirque, Switzerland.
3. Spatial processes (pond connectivity) were important drivers for taxonomic α diversity, while local environmental variables (pond permanence and surface area) were important determinants of functional α diversity. Species turnover was the most important component of β diversity for taxonomic composition, and functional composition demonstrated a nested spatial pattern.
4. Variation in taxonomic and functional composition (and the turnover and nestedness components of β diversity) were determined by local environmental variables despite the limited environmental gradients within the pond network. No significant effects of spatial variables on community composition were recorded for either facet of diversity, indicating that compositional variation was determined at a local scale. Water temperature, depth and pond permanence were consistently the most important measured drivers of diversity.
5. Given the importance of both spatial and environmental variables in structuring taxonomic and functional diversity, landscape-scale conservation and management activities that aim to improve or protect high-altitude freshwater biodiversity should focus on maintaining connectivity among ponds and environmental heterogeneity, particularly pond surface area, water depth, and hydroperiod. Understanding the mechanisms driving taxonomic and functional diversity will be critically important for the management and conservation of macroinvertebrate communities in high-altitude pond networks in the face of climatic warming.

     

Wetland edges as peak refugia from an introduced piscivore

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Biodiversity,ecology, fisheries,and use and trade of Tetraodontiformes fishes reveal their socio‐ecological significance along the tropical Brazilian continental shelf

1. Tetraodontiformes fishes play a critical role in benthic and demersal communities and are facing threats due to anthropogenic impacts and climate change. However, they are poorly studied worldwide. To improve knowledge on the socio‐ecological significance and conservation of Tetraodontiformes a review of literature addressing the diversity, ecology, use and trade, conservation, and main threats of Tetraodontiformes combined with a comprehensive in situ dataset from two broad‐range multidisciplinary oceanographic surveys performed along the Tropical Brazilian Continental Shelf was undertaken.
2. Twenty‐nine species were identified, being primarily found on coral reefs and algal ecosystems. At these habitats, tetraodontids present highly diversified trophic categories and might play an important role by balancing the marine food web
3. Coral reef ecosystems, especially those near to the shelf break, seem to be the most important areas of Tetraodontiformes fishes, concentrating the highest values of species richness, relative abundance and the uncommon and Near Threatened species.
4. Ninety per cent of species are commonly caught as bycatch, being also used in the ornamental trade (69%) and as food (52%), serving as an important source of income for artisanal local fisheries.
5. Tetraodontiformes are threatened by unregulated fisheries, overexploitation, bycatch, and habitat loss due to coral reef degradation and the potential effects of climate change. These factors are more broadly impacting global biodiversity, food security, and other related ecosystem functions upon which humans and many other organisms rely.
6. We recommend the following steps that could improve the conservation of Tetraodontiformes along the tropical Brazilian Continental shelf and elsewhere: (i) data collection of the commercial, incidental, ornamental and recreational catches; (ii) improvement of the current legislation directed at the marine ornamental harvesting; (iii) increase efforts focused on the education and conservation awareness in coastal tourism and communities; and, most important, (iv) creation of marine reserves networks in priority areas of conservation, protecting either the species and key habitats for its survival.