Ontogeny of anti-predator behavior in hatchery-reared jack mackerel Trachurus japonicus larvae and juveniles: patchiness formation, swimming capability, and interaction with jellyfish

ABSTRACT:   Laboratory rearing and behavioral observations of larval and juvenile jack mackerel Trachurus japonicus were conducted to elucidate their life-history traits with emphasis on the interaction with the moon jellyfish Aurelia aurita . Jack mackerel were raised from naturally spawned fertilized eggs and they attained 10.3 ± 0.7 (mean ± standard deviation) mm in body length (BL) by 30 days post hatching (dph) and 26.6 ± 1.8 mm BL at 48 dph raised at 19.3–25.0°C. Patchiness (dense aggregation) was confirmed from 5–16 dph (2.9–5.9 mm BL) during the day and from 9–48 dph (4.0–27 mm BL) at night. Cruise and burst swimming speeds were 1.5–1.9 BL/s and 16–24 BL/s, respectively, during larval and juvenile stages, in experimental tanks. Although escape performance from jellyfish was not different between the larvae of jack mackerel and chub mackerel Scomber japonicus , both species showed better survival compared to red sea bream Pagrus major larvae of a similar size. Although jack mackerel were slow in growth, their slow cruise swimming may reduce the chance of encountering predators and fast burst swimming may help escape from gelatinous predators.     

Jack mackerel <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trachurus japonicus</Emphasis> juveniles use jellyfish for predator avoidance and as a prey collector

ABSTRACT:   Juveniles of carangid fishes including jack mackerel Trachurus japonicus are known to associate with jellyfishes. The function of this association behavior was studied through rearing experiments and underwater visual observations. Association behavior of jack mackerel with moon jellyfish in experimental tanks was more frequent in the presence compared to the absence of predators (chub mackerel Scomber japonicus ). In the experimental tanks, the presence of jellyfish, however, did not mitigate predation by these predators. Although jack mackerel did not feed on the jellyfish itself, they frequently fed on the captured prey ( Artemia nauplii) whilst in the gut cavity of the jellyfish. Underwater observations of giant jellyfish Nemopilema nomurai off Kyoto and Fukui prefectures revealed that approximately 30% of these jellyfish were accompanied by jack mackerel juveniles with body sizes ranging 10–45 mm standard length (SL). Considering that jack mackerel juveniles found in subtidal rocky reefs ranged 40–120 mm SL, we considered that jack mackerel from 10 to 45 mm SL associate with jellyfish as a hiding place as well as a food collector, until they find a suitable reef habitat when they attain approximately 40 mm SL.     

Critical swimming speed and maximum sustainable swimming speed of juvenile Pacific bluefin tuna, Thunnus orientalis

Tank wall collision is one of the major causes of mortality during the early-stage rearing of Pacific bluefin tuna, Thunnus orientalis (PBT). Therefore, to design a rearing environment that meets the needs of juvenile PBT, it is important to gather information about their swimming capabilities. We conducted experiments to examine the relative critical swimming speed (RCSS) and maximum sustainable swimming speed (MSSS) of early-stage PBT. The fish were kept in 3-tonne tanks and fed on artificial pellets every 2 h from dusk to dawn. We conducted two sets of experiments to measure swimming speed; the fish were introduced one at a time into a water funnel, and the water current velocity was gradually increased over time to estimate RCSS, or the water current was kept at a constant velocity to estimate MSSS. We measured the RCSS of 72 PBT juveniles (24–29 days after hatching (DAH); standard length (SL), 15.0 ± 2.3 mm) and the MSSS of 32 PBT juveniles (28–37 DAH; SL, 20.0 ± 5.1 mm) in the laboratory. The RCSS ranged from 4.7 to 20.3 SL/s (average, 12.4 ± 3.3 SL/s), and the MSSS was estimated to be approximately 4 SL/s. We speculate that introducing a water current in the rearing tank of no more than 4 SL/s could positively affect the survival of juvenile PBT.     

东海鲐鱼资源合理利用的研究

利用1970~2006年每年取样鲐鱼所得叉长体重组构成资料,重点分析了70、80、90年代的鲐鱼生物学表征;并结合我国围网捕捞的发展变化情况,应用体长结构实际种群分析法(LVPA)对各个年代的鲐鱼捕捞死亡系数(F)做了分析对比,研究显示,东海区日本鲭F由70年代的0.68上升为90年代的1.60,开发利用程度在不断地加大中。根据1990年以来的日本鲭渔获量资料,估算了1990~2001年东海区日本鲭资源量,结果表明,东海区日本鲭年平均资源量在(73.34~116.88)×104t之间波动。以LVPA法估算所得的90年代鲐鱼F值和最小开捕叉长的数据,利用B-H动态综合模型估算了不同渔业条件下的单位补充量渔获量(Y/R)的变化,结果显示,以目前的捕捞强度,日本鲭的开捕年龄从0.25龄提高为1.22龄,即最小开捕叉长由185 mm调整为247.61 mm,Y/R可提高15.1%,具有一定增产潜力。建议在实际渔业中,渔期适当推迟,禁止利用日本鲭幼鱼。     

The dietary value for sea-bass larvae (Dicentrarchus labrax) of the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis fed with or without a laboratory-cultured alga

Rotifers were fed on a laboratory-cultured alga, Platymonas (= Tetraselmis) suecica, and/or a diet composed of commercial single-cell proteins. They were given to sea-bass larvae up to day 15–20 after hatching, while Artemia nauplii were supplied from day 9–13. At day 21, the survival rate of fish obtained with rotifers fed on compound diet ranged between 32 and 82%, and their mean weight between 5.0 and 7.8 mg. When rotifers were fed either only on algae or on a mixture of 33% algae and 67% compound diet, the growth and survival rates of sea-bass were not clearly different to those obtained with rotifers fed on compound diet. No significant difference was observed when these rotifers were enriched with nutrients just before distributing them to fish. However, these rates appeared to be quite high in comparison to those obtained by several other authors. We can therefore recommend rotifers fed on compound diet as being, even without enrichment, convenient and low-cost food for sea-bass larvae.     

异齿裂腹鱼游泳能力初探

为了摸清雅鲁藏布江特有种异齿裂腹鱼(Schizothorax oconnori)的游泳能力,以野生鱼种为实验对象,通过丹麦Loligo System公司的环形试验水槽测试了异齿裂腹鱼的临界游泳速度、突进游泳速度和持续游泳速度。结果显示,异齿裂腹鱼的临界游泳速度随体长的增大而增加,相对临界游泳速度随体长的增大而减小,其临界游泳速度与体长的关系为Y1=-39.369+13.23X-0.371X2+0.004X3(Y1是绝对临界游泳速度,X为体长)。突进游泳速度随体长的增加而近似呈线性递增趋势,而相对突进游泳速度随体长的增大而减小。在三个固定流速(60cm/s、80 cm/s、100 cm/s)下,初步确定60 cm/s为异齿裂腹鱼的持续游泳速度,80 cm/s、100 cm/s为耐久游泳速度。研究成果以期为青藏高原地区鱼类行为学的研究提供基础资料,为鱼道等过鱼设施的设计提供参考资料。     

Metabolic measurements and parameter estimations for bioenergetics modelling of Pacific Chub Mackerel Scomber japonicus

As a crucial step in developing a bioenergetics model for Pacific Chub Mackerel Scomber japonicus (hereafter chub mackerel), parameters related to metabolism, the largest dissipation term in bioenergetics modelling, were estimated. Swimming energetics and metabolic data for nine chub mackerel were collected at 14°C, a low temperature within the typical thermal range of this species, using variable‐speed swim‐tunnel respirometry. These new data were combined with previous speed‐dependent metabolic data at 18 and 24°C and single‐speed (1 fork length per second: FL/s) metabolic data at 15 and 20°C to estimate respiration parameters for model development. Based on the combined data, the optimal swimming speed (the swimming speed with the minimum cost of transport, U_opt) was 42.5 cm/s (1.5–3.0 FL/s or 2.1 ± 0.4 FL/s) and showed no significant dependence on temperature or fish size. The daily mass‐specific oxygen consumption rate (R, g O₂ g fish^?1 day^?1) was expressed as a function of fish mass (W), temperature (T) and swimming speed (U): R = 0.0103W^?0.490 e^(0.0457T) e^(0.0235U). Compared to other small pelagic fishes such as Pacific Herring Clupea harengus pallasii, Pacific Sardine Sardinops sagax and various anchovy species, chub mackerel respiration showed a lower dependence on fish mass, temperature and swimming speed, suggesting a greater swimming ability and lower sensitivity to environmental temperature variation.     

不同营养状况对鲫鱼偏好游泳速度的影响

为考察不同营养状况对鲤科鱼类偏好游泳速度的影响,本研究以鲫鱼(Carassius auratus)为实验对象,(25±1.0)℃条件下设置3个不同营养状况实验组:对照组(禁食48 h)、饱食组(饱食)和饥饿组(饥饿14 d),将单尾实验鱼置于梯度流速选择仪(流速范围为11.86~65.45 cm/s,等距离划分为5个流速区域,从第一到第五流速区域流速连续增加)中拍摄1 h,采用Ethovision XT9软件分析视频资料并计算实验鱼在不同流速区域平均进入频次(F,次)、单次进入停留时间(T,s/次)和平均停留时间百分比(P_t,%)等流速选择行为指标。结果显示,对照组和饱食组的F值随水流速度上升而增加,对照组的T值不同流速区域间无差异(P0.05),而饱食组第三和第四流速区域T值均显著大于其他流速区域(P0.05),因此两实验组第三和第四流速区域的P_t均显著大于其他流速区域,其偏好游泳速度为20.12~41.30 cm/s。饥饿组流速偏好行为出现表型分化,I型实验鱼在第一流速区域P_t和T值显著大于其他流速区域(P0.05),各流速区域的F值均显著小于其他实验组(P0.05),故I型实验鱼的偏好游泳速度为11.86~15.18 cm/s。而II型实验鱼则与对照组相似,在第三和第四流速区域Pt均显著大于其他流速区域(P0.05),故II型实验鱼的偏好游泳速度为20.12~41.30 cm/s。结果表明,饱食不影响鲫鱼的偏好游泳速度,可能是饱食不影响鲫鱼的游泳能力所致,但饱食组在各流速区域间的出入频次减少而停留时间有所增加。饥饿后鲫鱼偏好游泳速度出现表型分化,I型实验鱼的偏好游泳速度降低,而II型实验鱼则无明显变化,I型和II型实验鱼偏好游泳速度的差异可能是由于在饥饿条件下二者能量节约和游泳功能维持的策略不同。     

鱼类游泳速度分类方法的探讨

游泳速度是评价鱼类游泳能力的重要指标。本文对常用的几种鱼类游泳速度概念和分类方法进行了总结。目前,以时间长度作为分类标准可将游泳速度分为巡航游泳速度(Cruising swimming speed,T200min)、长时游泳速度(Prolonged swimming speed,200minT20s)、冲刺游泳速度(Burst swimming speed,T20s)3类。但由于时间长度的选择缺乏令人信服的依据,很多学者并未遵循这一时间界定标准进行各类试验,致使游泳速度的界定出现混乱,从而使以时间长度作为分类依据的方法失去意义。作者综合多数学者的研究方法,以鱼类的游泳状态作为依据,重新对鱼类游泳速度进行分类,并在这一分类基础上拓展引申出最大探顶游泳速度这一新概念,并对其推求方法和实际意义进行了探讨。根据新的分类方法,鱼类游泳速度主要分为5大类:最优巡航速度(Optimum swimming speed)、最大续航速度(Maximum sustained swimming speed)、临界游泳速度(Critical swimming speed)、最大探顶游泳速度(Maximum domed swimming speed)、冲刺游泳速度(Burst swimming speed)。其他游泳速度概念基本可以按照上述分类进行归并。借助最大探顶游泳速度这一概念,作者进一步探讨了其与最大续航速度、临界游泳速度3者之间的联系,认为在某种程度上这3种游泳速度作为评价鱼类游泳能力的指标具有一致性。     

北盘江2种典型增殖放流鱼类突进游速研究

长臀（Cranoglanis bouderius）和白甲鱼（Onychostoma sima）是目前北盘江主要放流鱼类,但这2种鱼的放流效果差异较大。由于鱼类的突进游速在一定程度上影响增殖放流的效果,故试验采用自制测试装置,用递增流速法测试了2种鱼的突进游速。结果显示,白甲鱼的突进游速大于长臀,且2种鱼的突进游速均随体长增加而近似线性增大;而相对突进游速则随着体长的增加而近似线性减小。研究结果可为北盘江鱼类增殖放流和放流效果评估,以及日后北盘江的拦鱼、诱鱼、集鱼船等鱼类资源保护措施的实施提供参考。     

Temperature effect on heart rate of jack mackerel Trachurus japonicus during swimming exercise

The heart rate of jack mackerel [16.5–21.2 cm fork length (FL), n = 24] was examined through forced swimming exercise in a flume tank by 10-min step-ups of speed levels in 1.5–6.0 FL/s range at different temperatures of 10, 15, and 22 °C. Electrocardiograph (ECG) monitoring was conducted by comparing the heartbeat pattern in still water without flow as a control, and continuously during exercise by speed levels until fatigue and during the recovery phase. Average heart rates in the control at each temperature were 36.5 beats/min at 10 °C, 56.1 beats/min at 15 °C, and 75.2 beats/min at 22 °C. The heart rate of jack mackerel significantly increased as the swimming speed was increased in each temperature. At the lower swimming speed of 1.5–2.4 FL/s, the heart rate was the same level as the control value at each respective temperature. The heart rate started to increase at swimming speeds of 2.3–2.5 FL/s at all temperatures. The higher heart rate in the range of 150–200 beats/min was achieved at a swimming speed of 6.0 FL/s at 22 °C. The recovery time after the maximum heart rate at high speed became longer at high temperatures.     

Three different lipid sources in formulated start-feeds for turbot (Scophthalmus maximus, L.) larvae – effect on growth and mitochondrial alteration in enterocytes

Turbot, Scophthalmus maximus, larvae were start‐fed with formulated feeds containing soya phospholipids (SP), marine phospholipids (MP) or triacylglycerol (TAG). The levels of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) were the same in the MP and TAG feeds. The control group was given rotifers (R). The larvae were offered feed from day 4 post‐hatch. Larvae fed formulated feed with added MP showed good initial growth and there were no significant differences in weight on day 6 between this group and the group given rotifers. Using feed with added TAG enriched with EPA and DHA gave no growth at all. Using SP as the lipid source in the feed resulted in reduced initial growth. Electron microscopical examination of enterocytes was performed on larval intestines on day 6. Larvae fed MP, TAG or rotifers had normal looking enterocytes with numerous normal looking mitochondria. In the enterocytes of larvae fed SP the mitochondria appeared swollen with a translucent matrix and fragmented cristae. Thus, SP or TAG appear not to be suitable as the sole source of lipids and/or phospholipids in start‐feed for turbot larvae and the effects of MP are not solely caused by high levels of EPA and DHA.     

Estimation of the spawning grounds of chub mackerel <Emphasis Type="Italic">Scomber japonicus</Emphasis> and spotted mackerel <Emphasis Type="Italic">Scomber australasicus</Emphasis> in the East China Sea based on catch statistics and biometric data

The spawning grounds of the chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus) and spotted mackerel (Scomber australasicus) in the East China Sea were estimated based on catch statistics of the Japanese large- and medium-type purse seine fishery from 1992 to 2006. Biometric data were obtained from specimens caught by purse seiners in the East China Sea from 1998 to 2006. Gonadosomatic index (GSI) at 50% sexual maturity of chub mackerel and spotted mackerel females was 2.5 and 2.6, respectively. Using this criterion for GSI, chub mackerel larger than 275 mm and spotted mackerel larger than 310 mm in fork length were considered to be mature. Mature chub mackerel was observed in the area of 15–22°C sea surface temperature (SST), and mature spotted mackerel was observed in the area of 17–25°C SST. The spawning period of chub mackerel ranged from February to June, and that of spotted mackerel ranged from February to May in the East China Sea. The spawning grounds were estimated from the distributions of catch per unit effort (CPUE) of spawners and SST. As a result, the spawning ground of chub mackerel was estimated to be in the central and southern part of the East China Sea and the area west of Kyushu in February, March, and April, and in the central part of the East China Sea, the area west of Kyushu and Tsushima Straight in May, and in Tsushima Straight and western part of the Sea of Japan in June. The spawning ground of spotted mackerel was estimated to be in the central and southern part of the East China Sea and southern coastal area of Kyushu in February, March, and April, and the central and southern part of the East China Sea and the area west of Kyushu in May.     

Swimming ability of pre-feeding striped bass larvae

Swimming ability and changes in shape of striped bass (Moronesaxatilis) larvae were measured daily for the first 5 dpost-hatch. The critical swimming speed increased from 0.54 cm/s(1.3 body lengths per second (bl/s)) on day 1 to 2.64 cm/s (4.3bl/s) on day 5. The post-anal larval length represented 60% of thetotal length increase over this time. The use of critical swimming speed tocalculate acceptable drainage screen areas and through-screen velocities forlarval rearing tanks is demonstrated.     

Swimming ability of pre-feeding striped bass larvae

Swimming ability and changes in shape of striped bass (Moronesaxatilis) larvae were measured daily for the first 5 dpost-hatch. The critical swimming speed increased from 0.54 cm/s(1.3 body lengths per second (bl/s)) on day 1 to 2.64 cm/s (4.3bl/s) on day 5. The post-anal larval length represented 60% of thetotal length increase over this time. The use of critical swimming speed tocalculate acceptable drainage screen areas and through-screen velocities forlarval rearing tanks is demonstrated.     

鲢幼鱼非疲劳贴网及姿态转换行为研究

流速是影响鱼类生存与繁衍栖息的重要因子。为了了解鱼类在中等流速区的游泳行为,探究其对水流的适应特征,利用鱼类游泳能力测定装置,以鲢(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix)幼鱼[体重(9.82±3.81) g,体长(8.56±1.11) cm)]为对象,采用递增流速法,分析了游泳过程中的非疲劳贴网行为与姿态转换行为。结果表明,在22℃水温条件下,鲢幼鱼平均相对临界游泳速度(critical swimming speed,U_(crit))相比其体长(body length,BL)为(6.00±0.93)BL/s;其非疲劳贴网速度(no-fatigue impingement speed,U_(imp))与临界游泳速度呈线性正相关,U_(crit)=1.03 U_(imp)+1.26 (R~2=0.86,P0.01);姿态转换速度(gait transition speed,U_(tran))与临界游泳速度呈线性正相关,U_(tran)=0.59 U_(crit)+1.55 (R~2=0.43,P0.01);非疲劳贴网速度与姿态转换速度呈线性正相关,U_(tran)=0.51U_(imp)+2.72 (R~2=0.41,P0.001)。在中等流速范围内(2～4 BL/s),实验鱼摆尾频率(tail beat frequency, TBF)和单次摆尾周期前进距离(stride length, SL)均随流速增加而增大。首次出现非疲劳贴网的流速为4.62 BL/s,流速增至5.08 BL/s时出现姿态转换行为。发生姿态转换后,TBF开始下降,而SL随流速增加快速增大。研究显示,鲢幼鱼非疲劳贴网行为对游泳能力和姿态转换速度有显著影响,且非疲劳贴网行为与姿态转换行为之间也存在相互影响。研究结果可为自然环境中鱼类生态行为研究、鱼类资源保护及渔业管理提供参考。     

Fatigue analysis of the jack mackerel <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trachurus japonicus</Emphasis> by electrocardiographic monitoring during prolonged swimming

The effect of fatigue on swimming performance was examined by measuring the swimming endurance time and heart rate of the jack mackerel Trachurus japonicus [15.7 ± 0.8 cm fork length (FL), n = 15] during forced exercise in a flume tank at fixed swimming speeds of 4, 5 and 6 FL/s. Electrocardiographic (ECG) monitoring during the experimental process from control (0.8 FL/s) to exercise phase revealed a rapid cardiac response of T. japonicus to the elevation of swimming speed. The heart rate of T. japonicus significantly increased from the control level of 52.9 beats/min at a slow flow speed of 0.8 FL/s to 148.2 beats/min at 4 FL/s, 168.6 beats/min at 5 FL/s and 183.2 beats/min at 6 FL/s. During the fixed speed test, the heart rate of each individual fish was stabilized without any recognizable increase or decrease until the fish failed to swim because of fatigue. Fatigue analysis on endurance time demonstrated that prior swimming experience at prolonged speeds would impair the endurance performance during subsequent swimming exercise. Recovery time of the heart rate after the fish was fully exhausted by prolonged fast exercise increased with increasing swimming endurance time.     

东海南部鲐鱼生物学特性的初步研究

本文对东海南部的鲐鲹鱼类的叉长、体重及性腺成熟度等进行了初步分析,认为1999年5月份东海南部鲐鱼优势叉长组为26～28cm,优势体重组为200～300g;7、8月份优势叉长组为24～26cm,优势体重组为100～200g。蓝圆鲹优势叉长组为20～21cm。2000年7、8月份鲐鱼优势叉长组为24～26cm。1999年鲐鱼叉长组成基本呈正态分布,2000年鲐鱼叉长组成明显存在两个峰值。2000年相同叉长的鲐鱼体重要略低于1999年,认为跟1999年、2000年海洋环境因子变化有关。从相关系数来看,2000年的曲线更贴近实际情况。并认为5月份北上参加产卵洄游的鲐鱼群体、其性腺已开始发育成熟,并沿途产卵。     

赤点石斑鱼人工育苗的初步研究

<正> 赤点石斑鱼Epinephelus akaara(Temminck et SchIegel)广东俗称红斑,分布于我国南海和东海南部,是我国南方沿海地区主要网箱养殖鱼类之一。由于还未掌握人工育苗方法,在以往的网箱养殖生产中,全靠天然鱼苗。研究解决赤点石斑鱼人工繁殖与育苗问题,已列为重要攻关课题之一。各有关水产单他相继开展对此课题的研究。许波涛等1983     

Effect of different live food on survival and growth of first feeding barber goby,Elacatinus figaro (Sazima,Moura & Rosa 1997) larvae

One of the major challenges in marine fish culture is how to provide live food of adequate size and nutritional quality for first‐feeding larvae. Commonly used live food organisms, rotifers and brine shrimp, may not always be the best option. To determine the suitability of different zooplankton in the larviculture of Elacatinus figaro, three diets were tested: RE – rotifers Brachionus sp. (10 ind mL^?1)+ciliate Euplotes sp. (10 ind mL^?1), enriched with fatty acids; RC – enriched rotifers (10 ind mL^?1)+wild copepod nauplii (10 ind mL^?1); and R – enriched rotifers (20 ind mL^?1). Survival rates were estimated 10 days after hatch (DAH) for the three test groups, and growth rates were evaluated for RE and R at 10 and 20 DAH. Although survival rate was numerically higher for the RC diet (41.1±14.2%), no significant difference was detected between groups fed RE (20.5±18.1%), RC or R (32.1±16.5%). At 10 DAH, the growth rate was significantly higher in RC (5.7±0.6 mm) than in R (4.6±0.5 mm), a trend that was also observed at 20 DAH for RC (8.6±0.5 mm) and R (5.8±0.7 mm) (P<0.05). E. figaro larvae fed on ciliates did not show satisfactory results, whereas feeding copepod nauplii enhanced growth.