投喂率和投喂频率对吉富罗非鱼幼鱼生长和肝脏健康的影响

为探讨投喂率和投喂频率对鱼类生长和肝脏健康的影响,以吉富罗非鱼(Oreachromis niloticus)幼鱼(3.78 g±0.01 g)为研究对象,采用4×2双因子实验设计,设置了4个投喂率(8%、10%、12%和表观饱食投喂)和2个投喂频率(2次/d、3次/d),共8个处理,在24个循环水养殖桶(有效容积100 L)中养殖30 d。结果显示:在8%～12%的投喂率下,投喂频率对实验鱼的生长性能和饲料利用无显著影响,但发现表观饱食投喂3次/d的实验鱼生长性能和饲料效率最佳,其增重率和特定生长率显著高于投喂率8%实验组,饲料效率和蛋白质效率显著高于投喂率10%和12%实验组,而饲料成本则显著低于投喂率12%实验组。投喂率和投喂频率对实验鱼的肥满度、脏体比以及干物质、粗蛋白和粗脂肪的表观消化率无显著影响。随投喂率的增加,实验鱼的成活率提高,其肝脏和去内脏全鱼的粗脂肪含量逐渐增加,但肌肉和内脏的粗脂肪无显著变化。投喂率和投喂频率对实验鱼血清总蛋白、球蛋白、甘油三酯和总胆固醇含量及碱性磷酸酶、谷丙转氨酶活性无显著影响,但投喂率为10%的实验组血清谷草转氨酶活性显著高于投喂率8%实验组的血糖水平随投喂率的增加而升高。实验鱼肝细胞的核面积比例不受投喂率和投喂频率的影响,而空泡面积比例以表观饱食投喂的最大。依据生长性能和饲料利用,吉富罗非鱼幼鱼选择表观饱食投喂3次/d效果较好,但会产生体脂肪积累过多,肝细胞空泡增大等影响;若综合考虑生长和养殖成本,以10%的投喂率,投喂2次/d为宜。     

不同种类淀粉对草鱼生长、肠系膜脂肪沉积和鱼体组成的影响

将试验草鱼随机分配在 12个水族箱中 ,每箱放鱼 30尾 ,分别以玉米淀粉、小麦淀粉、水稻淀粉为糖源配制 3种试验饲料 ,饲养初始体重为 (8.49± 0 .0 4)g的草鱼 80d ,观察不同种类淀粉饲料对草鱼生长、肠系膜脂肪沉积和鱼体组成的影响。每种饲料设 3个平行组 ,日投喂率按鱼体重的 3%计算。试验结果显示 :尽管草鱼对糖的表观消化率以小麦淀粉组最高 ,但摄食小麦淀粉饲料的草鱼与摄食玉米淀粉和水稻淀粉饲料的草鱼在生长上并无显著性差异。然而小麦淀粉组和玉米淀粉组的内脏比、肝胰脏脂肪含量、血浆甘油三酯水平以及肠系膜脂肪占鱼体的百分比显著高于水稻淀粉组 (P <0 .0 5 )。鱼体营养成份组成除了水稻淀粉组全鱼脂肪含量相对低于玉米淀粉组和小麦淀粉组之外 ,其它成份没有太大的差异。     

不同摄食水平对牙鲆幼鱼生长及能量收支的影响

在水温(20.0±0.5)℃,摄食水平分别为体质量的1.0%、1.5%及饱食条件下,进行牙鲆幼鱼[体质量为(35.08±0.05)g]的生长和能量收支的研究。试验结果表明,随着摄食水平的增加,鱼体干物质、蛋白质和能量表观消化率随摄食水平的增加而增加;湿质量特定生长率随摄食水平的增加呈线性上升,干物质、蛋白质和能量特定生长率呈对数增加;饲料湿质量转化效率不受摄食水平的影响,饲料干物质、蛋白质和能量转化效率随摄食水平的增加先升后降。粪能占摄食能的比例随摄食水平的增加而显著降低,生长能占摄食能的比例随摄食水平的增加先升后降,代谢能占摄食能的比例变化与生长能占摄食能的比例变化相反。各个摄食水平下能量收支式为:1.0%:100.00C=28.99G+2.34F+6.03U+62.64R;1.5%:100.00C=37.19G+1.94F+5.27U+55.60R;饱食:100.00C=30.73G+1.36F+5.16U+62.75R。     

投喂策略对圆口铜鱼幼鱼生长、消化酶及肝脏组织结构的影响

为探究圆口铜鱼(Coreius guichienoti)苗种培育的适宜投喂策略，实验采用5×2双因子设计，通过8周的养殖投喂，研究投喂水平(1%、2%、3%、4%和5%)和投喂频率(2和3次/d)对圆口铜鱼幼鱼[初体重(4.91±0.11) g]生长、体成分组成、消化酶活性和肝脏组织结构的影响。结果显示，随着投喂水平的增加，圆口铜鱼的增重率和特定生长率显著增加，饲料效率随着投喂水平的增加而递增，但在投喂水平达到3%后趋于平稳。鱼体肥满度和脏体比随投喂频率的增加有降低的趋势，当投喂水平不超过3%时，3次/d投喂组的增重率、特定生长率和饲料效率均显著高于2次/d组。全鱼的粗脂肪含量随投喂水平的增加而增加，而全鱼的水分则显著下降。投喂水平对肝脏胰蛋白酶和脂肪酶具有显著影响，当投喂水平超过3%时，投喂水平升高显著降低了肝脏胰蛋白酶的活性，而在3次/d投喂组，肝脂肪酶随投喂水平增加呈先增加后下降的趋势。投喂水平、投喂频率以及二者的交互作用对圆口铜鱼前肠消化酶均无显著影响。随着投喂水平的增加，圆口铜鱼肝脏脂肪蓄积逐渐增多，并诱发脂肪肝，且在同一投喂水平下，3次/d组的脂肪肝症状较2次/d组的症状轻...     

摄食水平对几种重要海水养殖鱼类生长和氮收支的影响

本文研究了不同摄食水平（从饥饿至饱食）军曹鱼幼鱼（平均初始体重10.0g）、青石斑鱼幼鱼（平均初始体重5.5g）和卵形鲳鲹幼鱼（平均初始体重7.7g）的生长和氮收支，建立了生长和氮排泄与摄食水平的回归方程。结果表明，军曹鱼幼鱼特定生长率随摄食水平的增加呈显著增长趋势，在9%和饱食两个摄食水平之间无显著性差异，而青石斑鱼和卵形鲳鲹幼鱼的特定生长率随摄食水平增加呈线性增长趋势；饱食时，青石斑鱼和卵形鲳鲹幼鱼的生长速率接近而明显低于军曹鱼幼鱼的。军曹鱼幼鱼食物转化效率随摄食水平的增加呈先增长后下降的趋势，在9%/d摄食水平组有最大值，而青石斑鱼和卵形鲳鲹幼鱼食物转化效率随摄食水平的增加而持续增长，在饱食摄食水平时有最大值；饱食时，军曹鱼和青石斑鱼幼鱼的食物转化效率接近而明显高于卵形鲳鲹幼鱼的。3种海水鱼摄食氮、排粪氮、生长氮和氮排泄均随摄食水平的增加呈显著增长趋势；比较可知，军曹鱼幼鱼的摄食氮和氮排泄均最大，而青石斑鱼幼鱼的最小。军曹鱼、青石斑鱼和卵形鲳鲹幼鱼饱食和次饱食摄食水平时的氮收支方程分别为100CN = 7.7(6.0)FN + 22.6(31.31)GN + 69.7(62.68)UN、100CN = 2.7(2.8)FN + 20.9(8.4)GN + 76.4(88.8)UN和100CN = 1.8(1.4)FN + 12.8(9.3)GN + 85.4(89.3)UN（氮收支方程括号中的为次饱食数据）；3种海水鱼饱时和次饱食时摄食氮中用于排粪的比例较小且变化不大，军曹鱼次饱食时摄食氮中用于生长的比例较饱食时的大而用于排泄的比例较饱食时的小，青石斑鱼和卵形鲳鲹幼鱼的则相反。因此，鱼类的氮排泄率和氮收支方程存在种间差异，而当食物中氮含量较为接近时，摄食量增大是导致鱼类氮排泄增加的主要原因之一。综合考虑生长、食物转化效率、氮排泄和氮收支方程各因素，可得出在实验的生长阶段，3种海水养殖鱼中，军曹鱼幼鱼的最佳摄食水平为次饱食摄食水平（9%/d或约为饱食摄食水平的70%），而青石斑鱼和卵形鲳鲹幼鱼的最佳摄食水平为饱食摄食水平。     

不同投喂方式对网箱养殖卵形鲳鲹生长及其营养成分的影响

针对深水网箱养殖卵形鲳鲹(Trachinotus ovatus)的投喂技术问题,开展常规投喂、高频率投喂和饱食投喂3种不同投喂方式对卵形鲳鲹生长特性和鱼体营养成分影响的研究,试验结果表明,(1)与每天投喂3次的常规投喂组相比,每天投喂4次的高频率投喂组,鱼体成活率高,大小更均匀,且鱼体肝脏粗脂肪含量明显降低(P>0.05),减少了脂肪肝患病率,但增加了人工劳动强度,对深水网箱规模化养殖总体效益的提高意义不大;(2)每次加大投喂量的饱食投喂组,鱼体生长速度明显加快,但成活率低,饲料系数增大,肝脏粗脂肪含量显著提高(P>0.05),鱼体大小严重不均匀。因此,实际生产过程中应避免饱食投喂。     

亚麻籽油替代鱼油对大菱鲆幼鱼生长、脂肪酸组成及脂肪沉积的影响

为研究亚麻籽油替代不同鱼油水平对大菱鲆幼鱼[初始体质量为(5.89±0.02)g]生长、脂肪酸组成以及肝脏和肌肉脂肪沉积的影响,以亚麻籽油分别替代0、33.3%、66.7%和100%鱼油,配制4种等氮等脂饲料。每组饲料随机投喂3组实验鱼,饱食投喂,养殖周期为92 d。结果发现,饲料亚麻籽油水平并未显著影响大菱鲆幼鱼存活率(SR)和特定生长率(SGR),但显著影响其摄食率(FI)、饲料效率(FE)和表观净蛋白利用率(ANPU)。随饲料亚麻籽油水平升高,FI显著升高,而FE和ANPU显著下降,且其均在100%亚麻籽油组分别达到最大值或最小值。饲料亚麻籽油水平并未显著影响大菱鲆饲料脂肪表观消化率、肝体比和肌肉脂肪含量。当饲料中亚麻籽油替代100%鱼油,鱼体肝脏脂肪含量显著高于全鱼油组。肝脏和肌肉脂肪酸组成与饲料脂肪酸组成相似。相对于全鱼油组,亚麻籽油替代组肌肉和肝脏中亚油酸和亚麻酸显著升高,而EPA和DHA含量显著下降。研究表明,大菱鲆饲料中亚麻籽油替代水平应低于66.7%,且大菱鲆饲料中n-3长链多不饱和脂肪酸含量需大于0.8%。     

投喂方式对工业化养殖半滑舌鳎生长、摄食、免疫及水质的影响

在封闭循环水养殖条件下,通过4×2双因素随机设计动物56d试验,即4种月饱食度水平(80%、90%、100%、110%)、2种日粮次投喂比例(差量:42∶29∶29;等量:1∶1∶1),共进行8个处理,每处理3个重复,探寻月饱食度和日粮次投喂比例对工厂化养殖半滑舌鳎幼鱼(291.47±4.23)g生长、摄食、水质、免疫的影响,确定兼顾生长、经济和生态效益的适宜投喂模式。试验结果表明,(1)月饱食度极显著影响半滑舌鳎的质量日增加、特定生长率和日均摄食量等(P0.01),日粮次投喂比例显著影响质量日增加、特定生长率和饲料系数等(P0.05)。差量投喂时,100%饱食度组比80%饱食度组的质量日增加、特定生长率分别极显著提高53.68%、37.31%;等量投喂时,100%饱食度组比80%饱食度组的质量日增加、特定生长率分别极显著提高43.73%、36.11%;质量日增加在等量投喂、月饱食度100%组合时达到最大值(3.60±0.18)g/d。(2)月饱食度和日粮次投喂比对水体氨氮相对含量均有极显著影响(P0.01),差量和等量投喂110%饱食度组比90%饱食度组分别显著增加72.22%(P0.05)、117.77%(P0.01)。(3)月饱食度和日粮次投喂比对试验鱼血清溶菌酶和超氧化物歧化酶活性均无显著影响。试验结果显示,90%月饱食度组与差量投喂为兼顾生长和水环境的生态适宜投喂组合模式,100%月饱食度组与等量投喂为获得最快生长的投喂组合模式,试验投喂方式对试验鱼免疫指标影响不大。     

摄食水平和投喂频率对中华鳖幼鳖消化率影响

在水温30℃条件下,摄食水平对幼鳖蛋白质表观消化率有显著影响（P＜0.01）;投喂频率对鲜鱼饲料组幼鳖表观消化率无显著影响（P＞0.05）,而对其蛋白质表观消化率的影响显著.在投喂配合饲料条件下,表观消化率和蛋白质表观消化率均在中间摄食水平（此时干物质的摄食率为0.97%）时达到最大,分别为76.26%和81.22%;在饱食状态下,其表观消化率和蛋白质表观消化率分别为72.36%和78.05%,日投喂2次鲜鱼组的幼鳖表观消化率和蛋白质表观消化率分别为92.05%和96.84%;投喂1次鲜鱼组的分别为92.17%和95.27%.     

限食(含饥饿)以及再充分投喂对鲻鱼生理参数的影响

在水温19~24℃条件下对鲻鱼[初始体重:(204.42±23.13)g]进行不同时间的限食处理后再充分投喂的恢复生长试验。试验设定3种方式,对照组(饱食组)在试验期间一直投喂;半饱食组在限食期投喂量为饱食组的1/2,重喂期则恢复投喂;饥饿组在限食期不投喂食物,重喂期恢复投喂。试验期为8周。取样在限食期的第0、1、2、4周和重喂期的第1、2、4周,每次6条鱼。结果表明:限食状态下,鲻鱼半饱组和饥饿组肌肉(白肌)糖原和脂肪含量均显著降低,而肌肉水含量和肌肉蛋白含量变化均不显著;比肝重亦显著降低;体重下降但差异不显著。再充分投喂后,各生理参数均恢复到对照组水平。鲻鱼在恢复生长过程中产生了显著的补偿效应。     

The effects of less-expensive plant protein sources replaced with soybean meal in the juvenile diet of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella): growth, nutrient utilization and body composition

In this study, the effects of less-expensive protein sources replaced with soybean meal on growth performance, nutrient utilization and body composition of juvenile grass carp were investigated. For this purpose, a control diet containing 42% soybean meal was prepared. Cotton seed meal (CSM), sunflower meal (SFM) and corn meal (CM) were added to the experimental diets by replacing 100% of the soybean meal protein used in the control diet. All diets were iso-nitrogenous (40% crude protein) and iso-caloric (19.5?MJ?kg^?1 gross energy). Each treatment had three replicates, and 20 juvenile grass carps (3.5?±?0.1?g, initial weight) were located in per replicate. The fish were fed to satiety three times in a day during 3?months at 26°C of water temperature in glass aquarium (45 l). The results of the study showed that the weight gain (308.6?C448.6%), specific growth rate (1.56?C1.89%/day), feed conversion rate (1.2?C1.9), protein efficiency ratio (1.32?C2.08), and apparent digestibility coefficients of protein (80.5?C89%) or sum of amino acids (80.5?C88.9%) were not significantly affected by the experimental diets, except diet CM. All of these values obtained for the diet CM were significantly lower than those of fish fed on the control, CSM and SFM diets. However, there were no significant differences between the lipid digestibility of the diets, and crude protein, lipid, and gross energy contents in the whole body of fish in experiments. In conclusion, CSM and SFM diets were highly utilized by juvenile grass carp, but not CM diet. These results combined with the remarkable acceptability of diets containing high levels of plant protein ingredients with identical growth performances of juvenile grass carp show clearly that dietary soybean meal level can be considerably reduced without any adverse consequence in terms of somatic growth and nitrogen utilization.     

Effect of ration on the growth and energy budget of Chinese longsnout catfish, Leiocassis longirostris Günther

The effect of ration on growth and energy budget of Chinese longsnout catfish was investigated in a growth trial. Fish of initial body weight of 6.5 g were fed at six ration levels (RLs): starvation, 0.8%, 1.6%, 2.4%, 3.2% of body weight per day, and apparent satiation for 8 weeks. Fish were weighed biweekly to adjust feed amount. The results showed that specific growth rate in wet weight, protein and energy increased logarithmically with increased RLs. The relationship of specific growth rate in wet weight (SGRw, % day^?1) and RL (%) was a decelerating curve: SGRw=?0.62+3.10 Ln(RL+1). The energy budget equation at satiation was: 100 IE=12.94 FE+5.50(ZE+UE)+40.07 HE+41.49 RE, where IE, FE, (ZE+UE), HE, RE are food energy, faecal energy, excretory energy, heat production and recovered energy respectively. Body composition was slightly but significantly affected by ration size except for protein content. The most efficient ration based on the relationship between RL and feed efficiency ratio in energy (FERe) was 1.8% of body weight per day.     

Energy budget and metabolism in common carp, Cyprinus carpio L., fed on different dietary protein levels and at different ration levels

The total energy budget of 65 ± 8.0 g common carp, Cyprinus carpio L., was studied in the laboratory. The pattern of energy allocation varied with dietary protein content and ration levels. The energy lost as heat of metabolism, R, was found to increase with dietary protein level and total ration. Energy lost as faeces, F, varied from 19% to 24% of consumption, C, but did not appear to be related to either protein content or ration levels. The energy equivalent of nitrogenous excretion, U, as a proportion of C increased with an increase in dietary protein but decreased with an increase of ration level. Regression equations were developed from the data to allow prediction of respiratory energy losses, faecal losses and excretory losses. The balance of energy budgets compiled from experiments conducted over an 18-day period was between 66% and 82%. Observed growth was always less than predicted growth, so the predictive models overestimated growth. The data presented form the basis for the first reported study of total energy budgets in Cyprinus carpio.     

Effects of different dietary wheat starch levels on growth, feed efficiency and digestibility in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella)

An experiment was conducted to determine the effect of dietary wheat starch on grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) in terms of growth performance, feed efficiency and digestibility. Five isoproteic (23.5%) and isolipidic (5.7%) diets with five supplemented levels of wheat starch (D20, D26, D33, D40 and D47 with 20, 26, 33, 40 and 47%, respectively) were fed to triplicate groups of grass carp (mean initial wet weight 6.9 ± 0.1 g) for 8 weeks. Results showed that weight gain (WG, %), feed efficiency (FE, %) and protein efficiency ratio (PER) in D20, D26 and D33 treatments were significantly higher than those in D40 and D47 treatments (P < 0.05). Digestibility of carbohydrate and protein was significantly higher in D20, D26 and D33. No significant differences were found in serum glucose and triglyceride contents between treatments. Serum lipase activity of fish fed D40 and D47 was significantly higher than that of fish fed other diets. Whole-body, muscle and liver lipid contents increased with dietary starch level as did mesenteric fat index, hepatosomatic index and viscerosomatic index. In conclusion, when dietary protein level was 23%, the level of dietary wheat starch should maximum be 33% to support normal growth of grass carp. Fish growth was hampered by higher wheat starch (>33%) despite fish ate increasing levels of dietary digestible energy. Furthermore, excess digestible carbohydrate was to some extent converted to lipid that was deposited in various tissues. Most importantly, grass carp could endure high levels of cellulose without any negative effect on growth and digestibilities of dietary protein and carbohydrate.     

沸石矿补剂饲料对池养草鱼生长及某些生理指标的影响

在鱼饲料中添加5%沸石粉,或用2.5%沸石粉+2.5%过磷酸钙。草鱼在生长、肥满度、背肌成份、消化率、血红蛋白等项指标上均比未添加沸石粉的对照组好,两者以2.5%沸石粉+2.5%过磷酸钙组效果更好。     

饲料蛋白质和能量水平对草鱼幼鱼生长和消化酶活性的影响

在水温24～29℃下,将675尾规格整齐、健康、体质量为（35.59士0.44）g的草鱼（Ctenopharyngodon idel-lus）随机分为9个处理,每处理3个重复,放养于水泥池中的网箱（100cm×50cm×100cm）内,投喂以鱼粉和豆粕为蛋白源,豆油作为脂肪源配制的3个蛋白水平（24%、28%、32%）,每一蛋白水平设3个脂肪水平（4%、6%、8%）,共计9种饲料。饲料蛋能比（P/E）在15.81-22.46 mg·kJ-1之间。92d的饲养表明：D4组（蛋白质含量为28.02%,脂肪为4.30%）草鱼的特定生长率最高,显著高于其他各组（P〈0.05）。随着饲料中蛋白含量的增加,草鱼全肠中蛋白酶的活力逐渐升高,之后又降低,以D4组饲料的蛋白酶活性最高,显著高于D1、D8和D9（P〈0.05）。本实验表明,该生长阶段的草鱼所需最适蛋白水平为28.02%,能量为14307kJ.kg-1,P/E约为19.58mg·kJ-1。     

Effects of ration level on growth,nitrogenous excretion and energy budget of juvenile yellow catfish,Pelteobagrus fulvidraco (Richardson)

Growth, nitrogenous excretion and energy budget of juvenile yellow catfish, Pelteobagrus fulvidraco (initial body weight 1.17 ± 0.28 g) at various levels (50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% and 100% satiation per day) were investigated with feeding diet containing 40% protein. Specific growth rate of yellow catfish increased (2.79–3.34% day) significantly (P<0.05) with ration level (RL) increasing. Feed conversion efficiency, feed protein retention efficiency and feed energy retention efficiency increased with the increase in RL, peaked at 70% of satiation, and then decreased at higher ration, with the ranges of 78.97–97.28%, 31.31–37.93% and 26.55–31.88% respectively. Both nitrogenous excretion (u, mg g^?1 day^?1) and faecal production (f, mg g^?1 day^?1) increased significantly with the increased RL, and ranged between 0.94–1.38 and 0.69–1.24 mg g^?1 day^?1 respectively. Apparent digestibility coefficients in dry matter, protein, energy decreased significantly as ration increased, with ranges of 54.42–69.64%, 78.24–89.90% and 69.66–82.07% respectively. Energy budgets of juvenile yellow catfish at satiation RL was: 100C=30F+8U+33R+29G or 100A=54R+46G.     

Effect of dissolved oxygen levels on growth performance,energy budget and antioxidant responses of yellow catfish,Pelteobagrus fulvidraco (Richardson)

This study was conducted to determine the effect of dissolved oxygen (DO) levels on growth performance, energy budget and antioxidant responses of yellow catfish Pelteobagrus fulvidraco. Yellow catfish was exposed to four levels of DO, consisting of hypoxia (2.28 mg L^?1), moderate hypoxia (4.04 mg L^?1), saturation (6.51 mg L^?1) and super‐saturation groups (9.11 mg L^?1), respectively, for 8 weeks. Specific growth rate and feed efficiency in dry matter were lowest in hypoxia and highest in the saturation and super‐saturation groups. Apparent digestibility coefficients of dry matter and energy increased with increasing DO levels. Gross energy and growth energy were lowest for hypoxia, followed by moderate hypoxia and the highest for other two groups. Faecal energy was highest in hypoxia and lowest in saturation and super‐saturation group. DO levels also significantly influenced activities of antioxidant enzymes and malondialdehyde level in liver and serum. Based on the observation described previously, saturated DO level helps to improve growth performance, feed utilization and antioxidant responses in yellow catfish. Super‐saturation did not increase fish performance. To our knowledge, this is the first study involved in the effect of DO levels on energy budget of fish and provides new insight into aeration regime for yellow catfish culture.     

Protein and Energy Metabolism of European Seabass (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Dicentrarchus labrax</Emphasis>) Juveniles and Estimation of Maintenance Requirements

The present work aimed to study metabolic utilization of energy and protein by juvenile European seabass reared at 25 °C and to estimate maintenance requirements, based on indirect calorimetry and nitrogen excretion measurements. Duplicate groups of fish (IBW = 22 g) were fed a practical diet, for 28 days, at ration levels of 0, 0.25, 0.5, 1 and 1.5% of body weight. At the end of this period, oxygen consumption and ammonia nitrogen excretion were measured in fed and unfed fish. Weight gain linearly increased with ration level. Feed efficiency significantly increased with nitrogen intake up to 0.68 g N/kg/day. Nitrogen retention (% N intake) was positive at all feeding levels, being maximum at 0.5% BW and then decreased with increasing ration levels. There was negative energy balance at the lowest ration level and significantly increased at higher ration levels. Daily oxygen consumption (g/kg body mass) and ammonia excretion (mg N–NH₄/kg body mass) significantly increased with ration level. Heat production and heat increment of feeding (kJ/kg/day) remained low at low ration levels and significantly increased as ration level increased from 0.5 to 1.5% BW. Below maintenance, protein energy represented 34% of total energy expenditure and significantly increased to 49–56% above maintenance. Based on indirect calorimetry and ammonia excretion data, maintenance energy and protein requirements were estimated to be 56.8 kJ DE/kg/day and 1.15 g DP/kg/day, respectively. The efficiencies of energy and protein utilization were estimated to be 0.83 and 0.66, respectively.