Enhancing Tree Seedling Supply to Smallholders in Leyte Province, Philippines: An Evaluation of the Production System of Government Nursery Sector and Support to Smallholder Tree Farmers

A decentralized seedling production is regarded as the most effective means of providing smallholders with planting materials. However, the sustainability of smallholder nursery operation is constrained by several factors, including the limited availability of germplasm, lack of technical skills and low seedling demand low viability of seedling market. The government nursery sector could complement the weaknesses of the smallholder nursery group but government nurseries are not operating effectively to enhance the availability of high quality seedlings of a wide species base for smallholder forestry. Seedling production in government nurseries is quantity-orientated with low emphasis on the production of high quality planting materials. Germplasm used in seedling production is mostly collected from unselected sources and seedlings produced are mostly of low physical quality. The species selection in government nurseries is heavily based on the availability of germplasm which resulted in the production of a few species which are commonly raised on private nurseries. The duplication of species of most seedlings raised in government nurseries with those produced in private nurseries and the far distance of government nurseries from the villages has resulted in low uptake of seedlings by smallholder tree farmers. For the government nursery sector to become more effective in providing support in the present paradigm of decentralized seeding production, a change from its production system and a broadening of the role it plays is needed. The social mobilization on seedling production as a scheme of implementing the Green Philippines Program has led the Department of Environment and Natural Resources to acknowledge the seedling production activity of private individual and communal nursery groups. This can be an opportunity for organizing the private and government nursery sectors to promote the operational effectiveness of the overall forest nursery industry.     

Development and Implementation of a Forest Nursery Accreditation Policy at a Local Level in Leyte, Philippines

Through a series of workshops with the stakeholders including nursery operators, tree farmers, staff of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, local government units and the academe, a forestry seedling nursery accreditation policy was developed. The resulting policy was subsequently implemented by the municipal government of Palompon, Leyte. The accreditation policy encouraged nursery operators to follow smallholder-based best management practices for tree nurseries. Implementation of the nursery accreditation policy improved farmers’ knowledge and skills in the production of high quality seedlings, encouraged adoption of BMP for forest nurseries, provided additional source of income for the farmers, enabled members of the groups operating the communal nursery to forge closer relationship with each other, encouraged utilization of farmers’ free time in productive activities, developed farmers’ confidence in producing high quality planting materials, and gained for the farmers favourable attention from various organizations and groups. The Bennett’s hierarchy of project outcomes showed that the implementation of accreditation scheme achieved high levels of outcomes, indicating that it led to substantial improvements in the lives of the farmers.     

Operational Effectiveness of Centralized Nursery for Small-Scale Forestry in San Carlos City, Negros Occidental, the Philippines: Lessons Learned in Seedling Production for Commercial Energy Crop Plantations

One way to maximize potential income of smallholder tree farmers is to ensure high quality of planting material. In San Carlos City, Negros Occidental, the Philippines, great importance is placed on seedling quality because Energy Crop Plantations (ECPs) managed under a Short-Rotation Coppice (SRC) system will involve a single planting for several three-year coppices. High seedling quality requires superior seed provenances and seedling propagation methods. Throughout the establishment of the nursery facility, and the propagation of planting stock, data collection, reporting and database systems have been designed to capture relevant costs and technical information. Training has been provided to nursery personnel and labourers to enable them to operate the nursery and produce high quality seedlings. This paper reports a practical operational evaluation of all materials and procedures followed in nursery establishment and seedling production. Economies of scale in nursery operation are achieved at a production level of at least 90,000 seedlings per planting season of three months in the year. The production cost is estimated at PhP 3.57/seedling, excluding the cost of the nursery infrastructure and overheads. Cost comparison with decentralized or contracted nurseries shows little variation at a total cost of PhP 4.12/seedling. However, with these alternative nursery arrangements there is high risk of producing low quality seedlings by possible reduction of inputs and skipping quality enhancement procedures to reduce production cost.     

Nursery Training for Smallholders: An Evaluation of Two Extension Programs in the Philippines

High-quality seedlings are a prerequisite for successful forestry and agroforestry expansion in developing countries. Unfortunately, in the central Philippines, as supplies of timber from native forest have diminished in recent years, the expansion in planting of timber trees has been retarded by sub-optimal production of seedlings from small-scale nurseries. To address this problem, an extension program supported by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) has attempted to improve the quality of seedlings produced in home nurseries, by assisting smallholders to raise and out-plant seedlings. A complementary program undertaken as part of the Community Agricultural Technology Program (CATP) has attempted to provide community workers and managers of small-scale nurseries with the benefit of recent ACIAR nursery research. Extended assistance in the ACIAR program addressed smallholders’ low self-efficacy in nursery technology and was successful in assisting them to grow high quality seedlings. A limited program of assistance was relatively unsuccessful. Evaluation of the CATP program showed that prior to the training, CATP participants were unfamiliar with some aspects of basic nursery technology. Consequently, they may have been unable to provide competent advice to smallholders. This implies that—as with the ACIAR training—extended training and follow-up assistance may be the key to improving the quality of seedlings for forestry and agroforestry expansion in the central Philippines.     

Decentralization of Tree Seedling Supply Systems for Afforestation in the West of Yunnan Province, China

At present, China has the highest afforestation rate of any country or region in the world, with 47,000 km² of tree plantations undertaken in 2008. While the prominent role of the central government’s afforestation programs is well-known, little is understood of how the system of tree seedling production and distribution supports afforestation efforts. More importantly, little attention is paid to how small-scale farmers access high quality tree germplasm in the afforestation programs. This paper examines the seedling supply system in the west of Yunnan Province in China by focusing on the three types of tree nurseries (state, collective and individual) that are being operated for the development of smallholder forestry especially in the context of decentralization. The research reveals that forestry decentralization has provided support for smallholder access to high quality planting materials and improved the effectiveness of nursery management. The reform has enabled the engagement of various forms of nurseries and created a hybrid system of state nursery operations. However, the state monopoly over the major seedling supply system using its inherent technical, market, policy and institutional advantages has limited the development of small-scale nurseries. The policy implication of this research is that improvements to the governance structure in the supply system of tree seedling may require more investment in nursery techniques, market information and provision of incentives to enhance small-scale nurseries and to contribute to seedling production.     

Assessing the Quality of Seedlings in Small-scale Nurseries in the Highlands of Cameroon: The Use of Growth Characteristics and Quality Thresholds as Indicators

In developing countries seedlings are often produced in small-scale nurseries as a means to raise tree planting materials and, provided they are of high quality, these can form the basis for successful forest plantation initiatives. This study uses morphological characteristics to assess the quality of seedlings of three tree species (Persea americana, Cola acuminata and Dacryodes edulis) in the Western Highlands of Cameroon. The growth characteristics and quality indicators of seedlings produced in two nursery categories were compared—three nurseries collaborating with the tree domestication program implemented by the World Agroforestry Centre (Category 1) and three nurseries collaborating with government and non-governmental projects (Category 2). Seedlings produced in nurseries in the first nursery category were found to be uniform in terms of growth characteristics and quality indicators. In the second category, there were relatively higher seedling proportions having measured parameters out of threshold standards for root to shoot ratio and for sturdiness quotient. Significant differences between nursery categories (at α = 0.05) were detected in root collar diameter of C. acuminata and D. edulis and in shoot dry weight of D. edulis. These differences could be attributed to better nursery management as a results of training and technical backstopping received by nursery operators in Category 1. The level of experience of nursery operators in both categories was found to be insufficient and greater exposure to skills and knowledge could enhance the production of high quality seedlings.     

Tree Seedling Production Systems in Northern Mindanao, Philippines

This paper examines seedling production systems for small-scale forestry in northern Mindanao, particularly the constraints and opportunities to sustain the operation of smallholder nurseries. Various types of nurseries were identified to examine issues and concerns operators face, and data collected through a survey of nursery operators, discussion with government and NGO personnel, and literature review. Many smallholders in northern Mindanao have been engaged in seedling production, for farm needs and sale in local markets. The interest of smallholder to sustain seedling production depends on market demand and incentives, which translates to financial benefit on sound nursery practices and of reliable access to profitable markets. Activities that will assist smallholder nurseries to achieve full potential have been identified as: available nursery technologies to produce high quality planting materials in sufficient quantity; building farmer groups to facilitate seedling production and enhance the scale of product marketing; building partnerships with various service providers and other stakeholders to address technical, institutional, marketing and policy issues that may hamper the operation of smallholder nurseries; access to markets and market information; and provision of incentives and policy support. Associated benefits from small-scale seedling production accrue to the government, wood processors and to the public in general.     

A Critical Overview of Forestry Seedling Production Policies and Practices in Relation to Smallholder Forestry in Developing Countries

This paper reviews forestry seedling production systems in South-east and East Asia and identifies problems with respect to seedling quality, seedling distribution and financial sustainability, and measures which have been adopted or advocated to improve performance in this sector. The paper draws in particular on experience in a series of research projects on smallholder forestry in the Philippines. Some observations are also drawn from the following papers in this combined special issue of Small-scale Forestry. It is found that a mix of public and private sector models are adopted for forestry seedling production, between and even within countries. Often nurseries are set up to provide seedlings for a government-directed expansion in tree planting, and have difficulty surviving once the initial planting purpose is completed. Private nurseries often lack resources, and depend on contracts to supply seedlings for financial viability. Demand tends to be highest for fast-growing species (often exotics), fruit trees, and ornamentals in the case of urban nurseries. Government policies typically favour quantity over quality of the seedlings produced. Considerable scope exists for adopting best or at least improved management practice in seedling nurseries.     

Small-scale forestry development in Leyte,Philippines: The central role of nurseries

This paper presents results of survey research into the role of the forestry nursery sector in the development of smallholder forestry in Leyte, Philippines. Seedling production in the province is basically carried out by three categories of nurseries: individual, communal and the government. Seedlings in the government nurseries are primarily raised for free distribution to landholders but the extension scheme fails to reach the majority of the smallholder farmers. Seedling demand of landholders is mostly catered for by the more numerous and accessible individual and communal nurseries. However, problems of capital outlay, sources and supply of germplasm, technical knowledge in nursery management for both timber and fruit trees and low sales are among the major impediments in the sustainability of small-scale nurseries. Most of the communal nurseries fail to sustain the operation after the withdrawal of supporting agencies. Knowledge on site-species matching is needed not only by small-scale nursery operators but also by the managers of government nurseries. It is concluded that the seedling industry in the province is not well established and there is a need to organise better the overall nursery system so as to improve the availability of seedlings and promote appropriate site and species combinations.     

谈培育高活力苗木的关键环节

苗木是造林的物质基础,苗木质量的高低直接影响更新造林的效果。一般认为,人工林保存率低的原因是苗木质量、造林的环境条件和造林技术等因素。造林用苗的质量对造林的保存率及将来人工林的生长起根本性的影响。由于目前对苗木质量从理论和实际两方面认识都不高,生产中常用低活力的苗木造林。鉴于上述情况,从生理生态学角度着重论述林业苗圃如何培育高活力壮苗的关键环节,以对育苗工作具有借鉴作用。     

保山市林木苗圃发展及可持续经营研究

阐述保山市林木种苗培育历史和现状以及新世纪以来林木苗圃发展与种苗管理措施,认为云南省典型山区保山市林木种苗生产和供应的模式以委托育苗为主,私营苗圃占绝对优势.就政府对林木种苗产业发展的影响、单一树种造林模式的改善以及林木苗圃的未来发展进行了讨论,建议政府对林业种苗市场发展加强规划和管理.     

Effects of boron fertilization in the nursery or after planting on the performance of Norway spruce seedlings on boron-poor sites

Many forest soils in Finland are poor in boron (B), especially otherwise fertile (nitrogen-rich) soils and peatlands. Boron deficiency causes growth disorders affecting young Norway spruce (Picea abies) stands. We studied the effects of B fertilization on the growth and morphology of Norway spruce seedlings. Boron was applied in a nursery and/or after planting in a nursery-field and on a reforestation site, both known to be low in B. The B applied in the nursery increased foliar B concentration in a linear relationship to the amount of B fertilizer but did not affect seedling growth and morphology. Even the highest foliar B concentration (approx. 400 mg kg^?1) did not have harmful effects on the seedlings. Therefore, B fertilization in the nursery can be used for increasing B storage in needles. Boron fertilization at planting increased foliar B concentration in the first season. Afterward, the concentration decreased but remained above the deficiency limit for at least 4–5 years. In the B-poor nursery-field, nonfertilized seedlings began to produce multiple leaders in the second year. On the reforestation site, fewer multiple leaders were found. At the nursery-field site, height growth was stimulated by B fertilization at planting. In conclusion, 200–400 mg m^?2 (2–4 kg ha^?1) of B applied at planting has longer-lasting effects on seedling B status than does B fertilization applied in the nursery, and can improve seedling quality and growth in the first years after planting on B-poor sites.     

Why seedlings survive: influence of plant attributes

Seedling survival and successful forest restoration involves many silvicultural practices. One important aspect of a successful forest restoration program is planting quality seedlings with high survival capability. Thus the nursery needs to create seedlings with plant attributes that allow for the best chance of success once a seedling is field planted. Since the mid-twentieth century, research foresters have critically examined plant attributes that confer improved seedling survival to field site conditions. This review describes the value of commonly measured seedling quality material (i.e. shoot height, stem diameter, root mass, shoot to root ratio, drought resistance, mineral nutrient status) and performance (i.e. freezing tolerance and root growth) plant attributes defined as important in answering the question of why seedlings survive after planting. Desirable levels of these plant attributes can increase the speed with which seedlings overcome planting stress, become ‘coupled’ to the forest restoration site, thereby ensuring successful seedling establishment. Although planting seedlings with these desirable plant attributes does not guarantee high survival rates; planting seedlings with desirable plant attributes increases chances for survival after field planting.     

Assessment of Small-Scale Private Nursery Enterprises in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria

Small-scale private nurseries in Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria, are examined with the purpose of identifying policy options that could further enhance development of the enterprises. A random sample of nurserymen operating in the city was interviewed about their reasons for engaging in the nursery business, types of services rendered by the nurserymen to seedling buyers, duration of nursery establishment, mode of land acquisition, species of seedling produced, factors affecting price of the seedling species, and source and cost of labour. Most of the private nurseries were owned by private individuals engaging in the business for reasons including income generation, as a hobby, and for research. Landscaping was the most common service rendered by the nurserymen; other services included maintenance of private gardens, and supply of seedling to individuals and landscaping contractors. Most of the land used for establishing the nurseries was obtained through lease from the government, with some through purchase and family land. Most of the labour was provided by the nurseries operators, employment of family members and some hired labourers. Seedlings of ornamental plants were in highest demand followed by seedlings of horticultural crops, and forest trees. Requirements for the nursery industry to develop further were identified, including land availability and at affordable price, and affordable interest rates charged by financial institutions on businesses loans. Training programs including workshops and seminars are necessary to keep nursery operators abreast with current techniques of seedling propagation as well as record keeping and business principles. Further, the nurserymen need to embark on strategies that add value to their products.     

State of Urban Nurseries in Bangladesh: A Case Study from the North-Eastern Region

The state of urban seedling nurseries in the north-eastern region of Bangladesh is examined with a focus on production and profitability of the enterprises. Twenty-eight sample nurseries out of the 97 nursery enterprises in Sylhet town were selected at random, and operators personally interviewed. It was found that the entrepreneurs are not highly educated though they believed that a basic level of education is required to understand the management of young nursery stock. Labourers of various employment categories work in the enterprises and their wage is determined by their skill, gender and efficiency. Capital and operating costs vary among the enterprises according to land value, production capacity, infrastructure type and workforce size. Production capacity ranges from 10,000 to 5 M seedlings/year with an average 836,000, though actual average production is only 341,000 seedlings/year. The production cost per seedling ranges from Tk. 4 to 50 while sale value ranges from Tk. 10 to 60. The most frequently sold species are Acacia mangium, Swietenia macrophylla, Tectona grandis, Mangifera indica, Litchi chinensis and Cocos nucifera. Nursery techniques and cultural practices adopted by nursery operators depend on the type of species and its silvicultural requirement. Despite some problems, including lack of suitable land for nursery establishment and inadequate level of technical knowledge for high quality seedling management, it seems that production of tree seedlings is a promising profitable small-scale business in the study area.     

Mechanical shock during transportation: effects on seedling performance

A study was carried out to monitor shocks to seedling planting stock during transport from nursery to the planting site in normal commercial reforestation operations. Size and exact time of mechanical shocks were measured by a recorder placed inside seedling boxes. Seedling shipments by refrigerated semi-trailer, 5-ton truck, pickup truck, small trailer and all-terrain vehicles were monitored in Alberta and British Columbia. Number of shocks, peak acceleration and average drop height were tabulated for travel on both paved and gravel roads.Twenty-two trials involving seven species were established at nurseries and field locations covering several ecological zones in both provinces. Frozen-stored, cool-stored, and freshly lifted seedlings were used in the trials. Seedlings were given two mechanical stress treatments by dropping them 30 times from 0.5-m and 30 times from 1.0-m, respectively. Control seedlings were not dropped. Treatments were applied to nursery-trial seedlings not exposed to normal handling and transport, and to field-trial seedlings after transport to the planting site. Six root growth potential tests were made with treated and control seedlings in conjunction with the nursery trials.Seedling survival and volume growth were recorded for two growing seasons and the results statistically analysed.     

Using morphological characteristics for assessing seedling vitality in small-scale tree nurseries in Kenya

Small-scale tree nurseries are important in fulfilling the goals of reforestation and agroforestry implementation schemes in Kenya and other developing countries. The focus in seedling production has been on quantity, instead of quality, but a change can be seen in recent tree nursery manuals. These manuals are emphasising morphological characteristics as tools for assessing potential field performance of seedlings. However, morphological criteria are debatable and their value is questioned. A survey was carried out among tree nursery operators in the Meru area, in the Eastern province of Kenya, to determine how operators perceived seedling vitality, and how they separated acceptable seedlings from those of poor vitality. Based on the survey, 3 pairs of criteria were chosen, size (tall versus small), colour (green versus yellowish), and sturdiness quotient (sturdy versus lanky). These criteria were tested on survival and growth in a field trial, a controlled bench trial, and in a root growth potential test. The results showed that the nursery operators were aware of quality differences in seedlings, but they did not cull accordingly. The results from the field trial showed that mango (Mangifera indica L.) performed poorly compared to grevillea (Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. ex. R. Br.), probably due to the high altitude. The altitudinal range for mango and grevillea are 0-1,200 m and 0-2,300 m, respectively, and the trial site was located on an altitude of 1,725 m. In grevillea, small seedlings grew better than tall in the field trial, but no differences could be found in the other trials. In mango, sturdy seedlings grew better than lanky ones in the field trial, while in the controlled trials tall seedlings grew better than small ones. The results showed that morphological characteristics as seedling quality assessment criteria could be unreliable as the effect differs with species and planting site.     

Why seedlings grow: influence of plant attributes

Successful forest restoration requires planting quality seedlings with optimal growth potential. Thus, nurseries need to produce seedlings with plant attributes that favor the best chance of successful establishment once they are field planted. From the mid-twentieth century on, research foresters have critically examined plant attributes that confer improved seedling growth under various restoration site conditions. This review examines the value of commonly measured seedling quality attributes (i.e., height, diameter, root mass, shoot-to-root ratio, drought resistance, freezing tolerance, nutrient status, root growth potential, and root electrolyte leakage) that have been recognized as important in explaining why seedlings with improved attributes have better growth after planting. Seedlings with plant attributes that fall within the appropriate range of values can increase the speed with which they overcome planting stress, initiate growth, and become “coupled” to the forest restoration site, thereby ensuring successful seedling establishment. Although planting high quality seedlings does not guarantee successful seedling establishment, it increases chances for successful establishment and growth.     

Quantifying root system quality of nursery seedlings and relationship to outplanting performance

With over 1.5 billion forest tree seedlings produced annually in the USA, seedling quality assessment is critical to ensure reforestation success. While height and root-collar diameter are the most common traits evaluated during seedling quality assessment, above-ground morphology is not always an accurate predictor of performance after outplanting. Root system morphology and physiological status may provide a more accurate indication of seedling potential. However, relatively few studies have attempted to quantitatively assess root system quality in relation to outplanting success. Large root volume, high root fibrosity, and an increased number of first-order lateral roots have shown some correlation to improved field performance. Physiological seedling quality assessment is commonly practiced through evaluation of root growth potential. Other tests, such as root electrolyte leakage, have also shown some potential as measures of seedling physiological quality. This review identifies current methods of assessing seedling root system quality and discusses potential shortcomings of these methods. An increased understanding of the suitability of current tests, coupled with the development of new tests and multiple parameter relationships, may foster the development of species and site-specific targets for seedling root system quality assessment. The production of seedlings with root systems that meet high morphological and physiological standards better enables seedlings to rapidly establish and thrive upon outplanting.     

美国林木种苗培育技术现状及启示

美国林木苗圃在种苗培育上有着较好的技术和经验, 作者以1992年掌握的美国种苗信息为基础, 对20年后美国林木苗圃主要育苗技术情况进行分析和综述。其中主要介绍美国东南部和西北部地区近15个林木种苗生产相关企业及研究所的实用技术和技术推广情况, 讨论美国林木种苗行业协会和技术推广专家在育苗技术推广中的作用和形式, 提出了技术创新、苗圃分类经营、政府引导和产学研紧密结合等建议, 以期为我国的林木种苗产业发展提供借鉴。