Partial and clearcut harvesting of dry Douglas-fir forests: Implications for small mammal communities

Dry Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) forests offer a wide range of timber and non-timber values, which may benefit from a balanced timber harvest by variable retention systems with conservation of biodiversity. A major component of biodiversity are forest floor small mammal communities whose abundance and diversity serve as ecological indicators of significant change in forest structure and function from harvesting activities. This study was designed to test the hypotheses that abundance, reproduction, and survival of (i) the southern red-backed vole (Myodes gapperi, formerly Clethrionomys gapperi), will decline; (ii) the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus), will be similar; and (iii) the meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) and northwestern chipmunk (Tamias amoenus), will increase, with decreasing levels of tree retention. Small mammal populations were live-trapped from 1994 to 1997 in replicated sites of uncut forest, 20% and 50% volume removal by single tree selection, 20%, 35%, and 50% patch cuts based on openings of 0.1–1.6 ha, and small 1.6 ha clearcuts in Douglas-fir forest near Kamloops, British Columbia, Canada. M. gapperi dominated the small mammal community, starting with an abundance of 74–98 animals/ha with mean values ranging from 33 to 51 animals/ha. In the two post-harvest years, abundance, reproduction, and survival of M. gapperi populations were consistently similar among uncut forest and the various levels of tree retention. Thereafter, M. gapperi was seldom found on the small clearcuts. M. pennsylvanicus, T. amoenus, and P. maniculatus occurred predominantly in clearcut sites. As with other types of forest disturbance, responses to our treatments were species-specific. The most striking result was the high abundance and productivity of M. gapperi populations in a dry forest ecosystem, a novel result for this bio-indicator species of closed-canopy forest conditions. At least with respect to small mammals, the retention systems studied seem to enable timber extraction and maintenance of mature forest habitat in these dry fir ecosystems.     

A meta-analysis of the effects of wildfire,clearcutting, and partial harvest on the abundance of North American small mammals

Wildfires and timber harvest are two of the most prevalent disturbances in North American forests. To evaluate and compare their impact on small mammals, I conducted meta-analyses on (1) the effect of stand-replacement wildfires and several types of forest harvest (clearcutting followed by burning, clearcutting, and uniform partial harvest) on the abundance of deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) and red-backed voles (Myodes gapperi), (2) the impact of clearcutting and partial harvest on a broader array of small mammal species, and (3) the responses of small mammals to recent and older clearcuts (i.e. less than 10 years vs. 10–20 years after harvest). In coniferous and mixed forest, all disturbances except for partial harvest triggered significant increases in the abundance of deer mice and declines in red-backed voles. The increase in deer mice after wildfire was stronger than after clearcutting and marginally stronger than after clearcutting and burning. The abundance of red-backed voles was greatest in undisturbed or partially harvested stands, intermediate after clearcutting, and lowest after wildfire or clearcutting and burning. While the positive effect of clearcutting on deer mice did not persist beyond 10 years after disturbance, the negative effect on red-backed voles was similar between recent and older clearcuts. In deciduous forest, clearcutting did not result in a consistent change in abundance of deer mice and red-backed voles. For other small mammals, recent clearcutting tended to increase the abundance of yellow-pine chipmunks (Tamias amoenus), and meadow and long-tailed voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus and Microtus longicaudus). Woodland jumping mouse (Neozapus insignis), masked shrew (Sorex cinereus), and short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) did not show consistent response to timber harvest. Overall, the impact of different disturbances on the abundance of small mammals (i.e. positive or negative) appears to be species-specific, but disturbance type may influence the magnitude of this effect. Disturbance types can be ranked from severe to mild in terms of small mammal responses. The effects of forest harvest on small mammals are not equivalent to those of wildfire.     

Effects of non-native spruce plantations on small mammal communities in subarctic birch forests

Voles and shrews are key species in northern forest ecosystems. Thus, it is important to quantify to what extent new forestry practices such as planting of non-native tree species impact these small mammals. In northern Norway stands of coastal subarctic birch forests have increasingly been converted to non-native spruce stands during the last century. This leads to changes in the forest floor vegetation and soil conditions that can be expected to negatively impact the community of ground-dwelling small mammals. In this 10-year trapping study we contrasted seasonal small mammal population abundances in spruce plantations with four birch forest varieties. Six different small mammal species were trapped (in descending order of abundance; common shrew Sorex araneus, red vole Myodes rutilus, field vole Microtus agrestis, grey-sided vole M. rufocanus, pygmy shrew S. minutus and water shrew Neomys fodiens). None of the voles appeared to exhibit temporal dynamics resembling population cycles. The three most numerous species were clearly less abundant in the spruce plantations compared to the other forest types. Autumn abundances were most impacted by spruce plantations, indicating that growth rates in the reproductive season were more influenced than winter declines. Species associated with productive forest habitats (i.e. field vole and common shrew) were most impacted by tree species conversion. Still young spruce plantations inter-mixed with birch trees and the ecotone habitat, sustained small mammal abundances comparable to the native birch forests. This implies that managing spruce plantations to maintain a mix of different tree species and high spatial heterogeneity (i.e. more ecotones), will reduce the negative impacts on the small mammal community. On the contrary, if young spruce plantations, as they age become spruce monocultures covering larger parts of the landscapes than they do presently, the negative effects on small mammal communities may be larger than observed in the present study.     

Forecasting vole population outbreaks in forest plantations: The rise and fall of a major mammalian pest

Voles of the genera Microtus and Myodes feed on tree seedlings planted on cutover forest land in temperate and boreal forests of North America and Eurasia. This damage may have serious economic implications as well as limit regeneration of appropriate tree species in certain forest ecosystems. Prediction of vole population outbreaks and feeding damage to forest plantations, across even a limited geographic range, has yet to be achieved in North America. Thus, a major objective was a detailed analysis of changes in population dynamics of long-tailed voles (Microtus longicaudus), and to test three hypotheses (H) that vole populations would: (H₁) rise and fall in accordance with the abundance of herbaceous plants (grasses and forbs) during early vegetative succession after forest harvesting, (H₂) be positively associated with grass-seeded sites; and (H₃) incidence of feeding damage to seedlings would be positively associated with vole abundance. Voles were live-trapped for 6 years (2004–2009) from the time of harvesting on intensive sites, as well as surveyed over a range of extensive sites. Population numbers were related to habitat characteristics and tree damage in young forest plantations near Golden, British Columbia, Canada.     

Structure and diversity of small mammal communities of mountain forests in Western Carpathians

We sampled the small mammal (SM) community in mountain forest ecosystems of the Beskydy Mountains over 5 years in order to study associations with different types of forest habitat. Fourteen species were determined, three being eudominant (yellow-necked mouse—Apodemus flavicollis (45 %), bank vole—Clethrionomys glareolus (23.3 %) and field vole—Microtus agrestis (15.7 %) and one dominant common shrew—Sorex araneus (9.3 %)). Highest abundance was observed in young succession sites (plantations) with dicotyledonous plants dominant (>50 %) in the undergrowth. Highest diversity was observed in plantations and primeval forests. Lowest total abundance and diversity were observed in mature monocultures. Significant differences in diversity were only found between old monocultures and other sites. Using a faunistic similarity index, two basic SM community groups were determined: those inhabiting (1) early (plantation) and late (reserve) successional forest ecosystems with a dense dicotyledonous plant herb layer, and (2) plantations with a dense grass herb layer and forests with a dense canopy closure (fruiting monoculture). Redundancy analysis confirmed separate habitat preferences of the three eudominant species. Generalised linear model indicated increasing preference of field vole for plantations with dominance of grass and <10–15 % admixed dicotyledonous plants while decreasing preference at ratios >10–15 %, and increasing preference of bank vole for plantations with a dicotyledonous plant ratio of >10–15 %. The biotopes monitored proved suitable for long-term survival of the dominant SM species. Early successional plantations and forest reserves also represent important refuges for a number of rarer SM species presently under threat.     

Influence of variable retention harvests on forest ecosystems: Plant and mammal responses up to 8 years post-harvest

Green-tree retention systems are an important management component of variable retention harvests in temperate zone coniferous forests. Residual live trees (“legacy trees”) provide mature forest habitat, increase structural diversity, and provide continuity in the regenerating stand. This study was designed to test the hypotheses that, at up to 8 years after harvest, abundance and species diversity of communities of (i) understory plants and (ii) forest-floor small mammals, and (iii) relative habitat use by mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), will decline with decreasing levels of tree retention. Communities of plants and forest floor small mammals were sampled in replicated clearcut, single seed-tree, group seed-tree, patch cut, and uncut forest sites in mixed Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)—lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) forest in southern British Columbia, Canada from 2000 to 2003 (5–8 years post-harvest). Habitat use by mule deer was measured during summer and winter periods each year from 1999 to 2003 in these same sites.     

Do aggregated harvests with structural retention conserve the cavity web of old upland forest in the boreal plains?

Boreal species that are dependent on old forests, such as many cavity-using birds and mammals, are at high risk from conventional harvest practices. These species may benefit from ecologically sustainable forest management practices that increase heterogeneity within stands and across landscapes. Structural retention within cutblocks and spatial aggregation of cutblocks into large (1000s ha) harvest units are two such management practices being implemented by forestry companies in the boreal plains of Alberta and Saskatchewan. However, little is known about the implications of these practices for old forest species. The goal of our study was to determine if the cavity-using assemblage associated with old upland forest in this region is retained within aggregated harvests with structural retention. We used a cavity web approach to describe and contrast interactions among cavity excavators (woodpeckers, chickadees, and nuthatches) and the secondary (i.e. non-excavating) species reusing their cavities. We described the cavity web for two intact landscapes of old upland forest and for two aggregated harvest landscapes. We identified four key excavators of intact forest: yellow-bellied sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius), hairy woodpecker (Picoides villosus), northern flicker (Colaptes auratus), and pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus). These woodpeckers should be considered key excavators primarily of mature and old aspen forest, which dominated the study landscapes. Each woodpecker filled a unique role in the cavity web and all are important for conservation of two mammal and three bird species that used their cavities. In the short term (i.e. within four years post-harvest), the key cavity excavators and many secondary cavity-using species associated with intact forest were retained in the harvested landscapes. One secondary species (American kestrel (Falco sparverius)) was unique in the harvest cavity web. Compared to the intact cavity web, the harvest web had lower abundance of sapsuckers, greater abundance of flickers, and high reuse of flicker cavities by kestrels. These differences were associated with the shift from intact forest to a landscape characterized by patches of old forest surrounded by early-successional habitat. Abundances of hairy and pileated woodpeckers were too low to detect differences between intact and harvested landscapes. The key excavators primarily used trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) for cavity trees and thus aspen should be targeted for retention in harvested landscapes. A more detailed examination of the habitat requirements of the key excavators is needed to develop best practices for tree and patch retention and ensure conservation of the cavity-using assemblage in aggregated harvests.     

How rare is too rare to harvest?: Management challenges posed by timber species occurring at low densities in the Brazilian Amazon

Tropical forests are characterized by diverse assemblages of plant and animal species compared to temperate forests. Corollary to this general rule is that most tree species, whether valued for timber or not, occur at low densities (<1 adult tree ha⁻¹) or may be locally rare. In the Brazilian Amazon, many of the most highly valued timber species occur at extremely low densities yet are intensively harvested with little regard for impacts on population structures and dynamics. These include big-leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), ipê (Tabebuia serratifolia and Tabebuia impetiginosa), jatobá (Hymenaea courbaril), and freijó cinza (Cordia goeldiana). Brazilian forest regulations prohibit harvests of species that meet the legal definition of rare – fewer than three trees per 100 ha – but treat all species populations exceeding this density threshold equally. In this paper we simulate logging impacts on a group of timber species occurring at low densities that are widely distributed across eastern and southern Amazonia, based on field data collected at four research sites since 1997, asking: under current Brazilian forest legislation, what are the prospects for second harvests on 30-year cutting cycles given observed population structures, growth, and mortality rates? Ecologically ‘rare’ species constitute majorities in commercial species assemblages in all but one of the seven large-scale inventories we analyzed from sites spanning the Amazon (range 49–100% of total commercial species). Although densities of only six of 37 study species populations met the Brazilian legal definition of a rare species, timber stocks of five of the six timber species declined substantially at all sites between first and second harvests in simulations based on legally allowable harvest intensities. Reducing species-level harvest intensity by increasing minimum felling diameters or increasing seed tree retention levels improved prospects for second harvests of those populations with a relatively high proportion of submerchantable stems, but did not dramatically improve projections for populations with relatively flat diameter distributions. We argue that restrictions on logging very low-density timber tree populations, such as the current Brazilian standard, provide inadequate minimum protection for vulnerable species. Population declines, even if reduced-impact logging (RIL) is eventually adopted uniformly, can be anticipated for a large pool of high-value timber species unless harvest intensities are adapted to timber species population ecology, and silvicultural treatments are adopted to remedy poor natural stocking in logged stands.     

Cost-effective strategies to conserve boreal forest biodiversity and long-term landscape-level maintenance of habitats

Setting aside parcels of land is the main conservation strategy to reduce the rate of biodiversity loss worldwide. Because funding for biological conservation is limited, it is important to distinguish the most efficient ways to use it. Here, we assess implications of alternative measures to conserve biodiversity in managed boreal forest landscapes. We calculated four alternative spatio-temporal scenarios and compared these to the current management regime over 100-year time period. In the alternative scenarios, a fixed amount of funding was invested in (1) permanent large reserves (each tens of ha in size), (2) permanent small reserves (each a few ha in size), (3) temporary small reserves (based on 10-year contracts with private land owners), and (4) green-tree retention (small groups of trees retained on clear-cuts). To assess biodiversity implications, we used habitat suitability indices to calculate overall habitat availability for five groups of red-listed and habitat-specific species associated with decaying spruce logs. The possibilities for timber harvests did not differ among the scenarios, but biodiversity performance was different. The scenarios with permanent reserves tended to outperform other scenarios, suggesting that conservation policies based on permanent reserves are the most cost-efficient in the long term. Results, however, varied among time scales and species groups. In the short term, a strategy of investment in temporary small reserves was the most efficient. Habitat for species associated with old spruce dead-wood and preferring shade was rare throughout all simulations, and therefore, it is likely that these species cannot be sustained in managed forests. Species that live on fresh dead-wood and are associated with forest edges coped well in all scenarios suggesting that such species will persist in managed landscapes without additional conservation efforts. Explicit definition of conservation objectives and time frames for conservation action are thus prerequisites for successful conservation planning.     

北京市3种道路防护林春季滞尘规律研究

[目的]研究不同道路防护林的滞尘能力及滞尘的动态变化和空间分布规律。[方法]在春季对3种道路防护林(油松林、圆柏林、银杏林)距道路不同宽度的滞尘量进行连续观测,对比3种道路防护林滞尘能力,分析降雨、极大风速、相对湿度、PM10等因子对滞尘动态的影响以及3种道路防护林滞尘的空间分布特征。使用单位叶干质量滞尘量(mg·g-1)表征叶面滞尘能力。[结果]表明:(1)3种植物叶面滞尘能力差异显著,圆柏银杏油松,分别为4.79±0.20、2.48±0.07、1.42±0.04 mg·g-1,单株和单位林分面积滞尘量均为圆柏林油松林银杏林;(2)3种道路防护林在外界影响下滞尘量处于动态变化之中,油松林具有比银杏和圆柏林更高的滞尘稳定性;(3)降雨量较低时3种道路防护林滞尘量均增加,降雨量较高时3种道路防护林滞尘量均降低,油松和银杏林的滞尘量更容易受降雨影响而降低;随着风速增大,3种道路防护林滞尘作用不断加强,风速继续增大时,油松和圆柏林滞尘量均有减少,银杏林滞尘量仍有显著增加。(4)3种道路防护林滞尘量在五环路侧(北)均高于香山路侧(南),油松和圆柏林均呈现为道路防护林中间位置为最低点,银杏林中间位置滞尘量最高。(5)油松和圆柏林滞尘量外部比内部变化大,银杏林滞尘量内部比外部变化大。[结论]道路防护林的滞尘效益受树种、林分结构、所处环境、天气条件等多方面因素共同影响,在营建和管理过程中应充分考虑各种因素,充分发挥滞尘作用。     

Effects of green-tree retention on abundance and guild composition of corticolous arthropods

Corticolous, or bark-dwelling, arthropods may be useful indicators of environmental changes associated with variable-retention harvests. We studied the effects of varying levels and patterns of green-tree retention on the community composition of bark-dwelling arthropods. Arthropods were sampled with crawl traps installed on 280 live trees and 260 snags (all Douglas-fir) at three locations (experimental blocks) in the western Cascade Range of Oregon and Washington. Sampling coincided with the breeding season of the brown creeper (Certhia americana), a primary avian predator, in 2003 and 2004. Within each block, arthropods were collected in five, 13-ha experimental units—a control (uncut forest) and four treatments representing one of two levels of retention (15% vs. 40% of original basal area) and one of two spatial patterns (trees dispersed vs. aggregated in 1-ha patches). In total, 166,234 arthropods – predominantly Collembola (70%) – were collected over the course of study. With the exception of Collembola, arachnids were the most abundant arthropods (23% of individuals); spiders (Araneae) accounted for >95% of arachnids. Other common insect orders included adult Coleoptera (16%), Hemiptera (15%), and Diptera (12%). For all insects combined (excluding Collembola), activity-density (daily catch per trap, an index of abundance) was significantly greater in harvest treatments than in controls. The greatest increases were found at 15% retention—densities were 2.6 times greater than in controls and 1.8 times greater than at 40% retention. Pattern of retention did not affect abundance of most arthropod groups, although two families of spiders (Linyphiidae and Thomisidae) were more abundant in dispersed than in aggregated treatments. Traps on live trees yielded 2.2 times more arthropods than did traps on snags likely reflecting differences in food resources. A high proportion of herbivorous taxa showed negative associations with local density and basal area of overstory trees and positive associations with cover of herbs, suggesting that many corticolous arthropods originate in the understory and respond positively to increases in vegetation cover following retention harvests. The numerical dominance of Collembola and high abundance of Diplopoda also suggest important ecological ties between communities of corticolous and detrital (litter-dwelling) arthropods.     

Red-tree vole habitat suitability modeling: Implications for conservation and management

In the Pacific Northwest, USA, red-tree voles (Arborimus longicaudus) are of conservation and management interest owing to their apparent association with late-seral forests and the relatively small extent of such forests, largely a function of timber harvest, fire, and conversion of forests to non-forest uses during the past century. We created and evaluated a series of red-tree vole habitat association models, and applied the best model to evaluate tree vole habitat quality within and outside of reserves throughout most of their range in Oregon and northern California. We modeled presence and absence of tree vole nests across a gradient of biotic, abiotic, and spatial features; and within and outside of reserves. The best model included spatial coordinates, percent slope, basal area of trees with diameter at breast height (dbh) between 45 and 90 cm, maximum tree dbh, and standard deviation of conifer dbh. Plots with tree vole nests contained many late-seral/old-growth forest attributes such as large diameter, older, and variably sized trees. Evaluation of the best model, including rigorous cross-validation, showed the model to be statistically robust and to have very good/excellent predictive ability. Reserves had significantly higher mean habitat quality than non-reserved lands, and reserves had much more high quality habitat than non-reserves.     

Catastrophic windstorm and fuel-reduction treatments alter ground beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) assemblages in a North American sub-boreal forest

We studied the short-term effects of a catastrophic windstorm and subsequent salvage-logging and prescribed-burning fuel-reduction treatments on ground beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) assemblages in a sub-boreal forest in northeastern Minnesota, USA. During 2000–2003, 29,873 ground beetles represented by 71 species were caught in unbaited and baited pitfall traps in aspen/birch/conifer (ABC) and jack pine (JP) cover types. At the family level, both land-area treatment and cover type had significant effects on ground beetle trap catches, but there were no effects of pinenes and ethanol as baits. Six times more beetles were trapped in the burned forests than in the other land-area treatments; more beetles were caught in undisturbed than in wind-disturbed sites, and one-third more beetles were caught in the ABC than in the JP cover type. Thus, the windstorm generally reduced the activity-abundance of the beetles, but prescribed-burning increased it. Both salvaged and burned forest plots (especially in the ABC cover type) had the greatest species richness, diversity, and the most unique species assemblages. There was a highly similar ground beetle species composition (nearly 100%) between the ABC and JP burned forests, indicating that burning was a more primary driver of composition than cover type. At the species level, Pterostichus melanarius, an invasive ground beetle from Europe and a cover type generalist, was the most abundant beetle in the study (one-third of the total catch), and was caught in greatest numbers in burned forests. Removal of P. melanarius from the species composition analyses altered similarities among cover types and land-area treatments. Sphaeroderus nitidicollis brevoorti and Myas cyanescens were caught exclusively in the ABC and JP cover type, respectively; two rare pyrophilous species, Sericoda obsoleta and Sericoda quadripunctata, were only caught in burned sites; three forest species, Pterostichus coracinus, P. pensylvanicus, and Sphaeroderus lecontei, were caught more often in undisturbed JP sites; and two frequently trapped, open-habitat species, Agonum cupripenne and Poecilus l. lucublandus, were nearly absent from the undisturbed and wind-disturbed sites, as salvage-logging had a significant positive effect on their activity-abundance. Most species of Amara and Harpalus were trapped only in the salvaged or burned sites, indicating invasion of these disturbed sites by open-habitat species. We conclude that both the combined effect of fuel-reduction activities subsequent to the wind event and the numerical response of the invasive P. melanarius to habitat disturbances can alter the short-term succession of ground beetle assemblages in the sub-boreal forest.     

Moving riparian management guidelines towards a natural disturbance model: An example using boreal riparian and shoreline forest bird communities

Forest harvesting strategies that approximate natural disturbances have been proposed as a means of maintaining natural species’ diversity and richness in the boreal forests of North America. Natural disturbances impact shoreline forests and upland areas at similar rates. However, shoreline forests are generally protected from harvest through the retention of treed buffer strips. We examined bird community responses to forest management guidelines intended to approximate shoreline forest fires by comparing bird community structure in early (1–4 years) post-burned and harvested boreal riparian habitats and the adjacent shoreline forest. We sampled riparian areas with adjacent: (1) burned merchantable shoreline forest (n = 21), (2) burned non-merchantable shoreline forest (n = 29), (3) 10 m treed buffer with 25% retention in the next 30 m (n = 18), and (4) 30 m treed buffer (n = 21). Only minor differences were detected in riparian species’ abundance and bird community composition between treatments with greater differences in these parameters occurring between post-fire and post-harvest upland bird communities. Indicators of all merchantable treatments were dominated by upland species with open-habitat species and habitat generalists being typical upland indicator species of burned merchantable habitats and forest specialists typical upland indicators of harvested treatments. Riparian species indicative of burned riparian habitats were Common Yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas), Le Conte’s Sparrow (Ammodramus leconteii) and Eastern Kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus) and indicators of 30 m buffers were Alder Flycatcher (Empidonax alnorum) and Wilson’s Warbler (Wilsonia pusilla). Multivariate Redundancy Analysis (RDA) of the overall (riparian and upland birds) community showed greater divergence than RDA with only riparian species suggesting less effect of fire and forestry on riparian birds than on upland birds. Higher natural range of variability (NRV) of overall post-fire bird communities compared to post-harvest communities emphasizes that harvesting guidelines currently do not achieve this level of variability. However, lack of a large negative effect on common riparian species in the first 4 years post-disturbance allows for the exploration of alternative shoreline forest management that better incorporates bird community composition of post-fire riparian areas and shoreline forests.     

Alternative silvicultural practices with variable retention to improve understory plant diversity conservation in southern Patagonian forests

Understory plants could can act as indicators of temperate forest sustainability, health and conservation status due to their importance in ecosystem function. Harvesting impacts on understory plant diversity depends on their intensity. Variable retention has been proposed to mitigate the harmful effects of timber harvesting, but its effectiveness remains unknown in southern Patagonian Nothofagus pumilio forests. The objectives of this study were to: (i) define a baseline of understory plant diversity in old-growth forests along a site quality gradient and under canopy gaps; (ii) evaluate stands with three different variable retention treatments compared to old-growth forests; and (iii) assess temporal changes during 4 years after harvesting (YAH). A 61 ha N. pumilio forest was selected. Understory plant (Dicotyledonae, Monocotyledonae and Pteridophyta) richness, cover (including woody debris and bare forest floor) and aboveground dry biomass were characterized in summer for 5 years. Before harvesting, baseline samples were conducted along a site quality gradient and outside/inside canopy gaps. Analyzed treatments include a control of old-growth forest (OGF) and three different harvesting treatments with variable retention: (i) dispersed retention (DR) of 30 m² ha⁻¹ (20-30% retention); (ii) aggregated retention (AR) with one aggregate per hectare and clear-cuts (28% retention); and (iii) combined dispersed and aggregated retention (DAR) with one aggregate per hectare and dispersed retention of 10-15 m² ha⁻¹ (40-50% retention). Data analyses included parametric and permutational ANOVAs, multivariate classification and ordinations.Before harvesting, 31 plant species were found, where richness, cover and biomass were directly related to site quality. The presence of canopy gaps did not have a significant impact on the measured variables. After harvesting, 20 new species appeared from adjacent associated environments (two from N. antarctica forests and 18 from grasslands and peatlands). At the stand level, understory values were higher in AR > DR > DAR > OGF. Most (81-95%) plant richness at baseline conditions was conserved in all treatments, where inside the aggregates understory remained similar to OGF. Combination of aggregated and dispersed retention (DAR) better limited exotic species introduction and protected sensitive species, improving conservation in harvested stands. Changes in understory variables were observed after the first YAH in all treatments; greater changes were observed in the harvested areas than in aggregates. Changes stabilized at the fourth YAH. As a conclusion, the location of retention aggregates should be selected to preserve species understory diversity of more speciose and diverse habitats or particularly uncommon stands. Implementation of different kinds (patterns and levels) of retention for improvement of biodiversity conservation in harvested forests should be included in timber and forest management planning.     

Alternative silvicultural practices with variable retention improve bird conservation in managed South Patagonian forests

Alternative silvicultural approaches to timber management, such as regeneration treatments with different degrees of stand retention, may mitigate negative effects of clear-cutting or shelterwood cuts in forested ecosystems, including changes in old-growth forest bird communities. The aims of this work were: (a) to compare bird species richness and densities among different silvicultural designs with variable retention (dispersed and/or aggregated) and unmanaged primary forests, and (b) to assess temporal changes at community and species levels before and after treatments. A baseline avian survey was conducted prior to harvesting to evaluate canopy gap presence and forest stand site quality influences. Subsequent to harvesting, data on bird species richness and density were collected by point-count sampling during the summer season for 5 consecutive years (4 treatments × 5 years × 6 sampling points × 5 counts). Bird species richness and density (15 species and 9.2 individuals ha⁻¹) did not change significantly with forest site quality of the stands and canopy gap presence in unmanaged forests. However, both variables were significantly modified in managed forests, increasing over time to 18 species and reaching to 39 individuals ha⁻¹. Inside the aggregated retention, bird communities were more similar to unmanaged primary forests than those observed within the dispersed retention or in clear-cuts. Opting for a regeneration method with dispersed and aggregated retention has great potential for managing birds in Nothofagus pumilio forests. This method retained enough vegetation structure in a stand to permit the establishment of early successional birds (at least in dispersed retention), and to maintain the bird species of old-growth forests which could persisted in the retention aggregates.     

Sphagnum community change after partial harvest in black spruce boreal forests

In eastern Canada, boreal forests develop structural diversity in association with time since stand replacing fire. In some regions, this is associated with significant changes in the bryophyte community (Sphagnum moss invasion) and paludification (thick waterlogged forest floor development). The bryophyte community responds to opening of the canopy, and increasing moisture by replacement of slow growing species by faster growing Sphagnum spp. (e.g. magellanicum, fallax) that are dependent on constant hydration. Within a forest management context, partial harvest systems have been proposed as a strategy to maintain structural diversity, which is currently not accomplished with low retention systems. However, it is unknown whether these interventions will effectively accelerate community succession. The questions addressed in this study were: (1) is the composition of Sphagnum colonies in partially cut stands more similar to old-growth communities than in control, and low retention cut stands, (2) what aspects of harvest disturbance drive these changes, and (3) is the growth rate of Sphagnum capillifolium (an early successional shade tolerant species) different in partial versus low retention harvest systems? After harvest, Sphagnum patch size was reduced by 19.8% and 11.7% after low retention and partial harvest, respectively. While trends were not constant across three separate partial cut trials, the proportion of Sphagnum magellanicum, Sphagnum fallax and Sphagnum fuscum increased compared to controls and low retention 1–2 years after harvest. Models of percent Sphagnum cover indicated machinery track cover, percent cover of vascular plants, and patch depth were positive factors, while the influence of open canopy varied among species. Despite the inclusion of individual disturbance variables, the summary variable ‘treatment’ was significant in all models. Growth of S. capillifolium in partial cuts was intermediate to growth rates in control and low-retention cuts. Growth was positively influenced by slash cover and, contrary to the patch level, negatively influenced by track cover. These results indicate that partial harvest does represent an intermediate level of disturbance, as direct and indirect harvest effects were reduced, as was Sphagnum death. Change in composition 1 and 2 years after harvest indicates that partial harvests may effectively shift the bryophyte community towards an older community type and may thus be used to create landscape diversity. Long term trends and entire community compositions need to be assessed before this can be stated definitively. However, as paludified stands are less productive, the capacity of these partially harvested sites to produce merchantable timber is questioned.