Habitat use of large ungulates in northeastern Germany in relation to forest management

Estimating large herbivore density has been a major area of research in recent decades. Previous studies monitoring ungulate density, however, focused mostly on determining animal abundance, and did not interpret animal distribution in relation to habitat parameters. We surveyed large ungulates in the Biodiversity Exploratory Schorfheide-Chorin using faecal pellet group counts. This allowed us to explore the link between relative ungulate abundance, habitat use, and browsing damage on trees in a region with several types of forest, including unharvested and age-class beech forests, as well as age-class pine forests. Our results demonstrate that roe deer and fallow deer relative abundance is negatively correlated with large tree cover, and positively correlated with the cover of small shrubs (Rubus spec., Vaccinium spec.), and winter food supply. Habitat use of roe deer and fallow deer, as estimated by counting faecal pellet groups, revealed a preference for mature pine forests, and avoidance of deciduous forests. This differential habitat use is explained by different distributions of high quality food resources during winter. The response of deer to understory cover differed between roe deer and fallow deer at high cover percentages. The amount of browsing damage we observed on coniferous trees was not consistent with the relative deer abundance. Browsing damage was consistently higher on most deciduous trees, except for beech saplings which sustained less damage when roe deer density was low. Because roe deer is a highly selective feeder, it was reported to affect tree diversity by feeding only on trees with high nutritional value. Consequently, we propose that managing the number of all deer species by hunting is necessary to allow successful forest regeneration. Such an adjustment to deer numbers would need to account for both current tree diversity and alternative food resources. Our findings may be applicable to other forest landscapes in northeastern Germany including mature pine stands and differently harvested deciduous forests.     

The palaeoecological approach to reconstructing former grazing–vegetation interactions

Interactions between grazing animals and vegetation are assessed from three temporal perspectives: millions, thousands and hundreds of years. Data abundance and quality are highest for recent time periods, but geological data provide a background to the understanding of present-day grazing–vegetation interactions. The Quaternary glaciations and recent anthropogenic influences have contributed to the loss of European mega-herbivores. The geological record from the Eemian interglacial in Denmark suggests that presence of elephant and rhinoceros did not create widespread openings in forest cover. Large populations of giant deer in Ireland became extinct 11 000 years ago. We propose a theory that the giant deer were sufficiently abundant to convert juniper scrub communities into open grassland at a regional scale. The balance between grazers and browsers has undergone continuous change during the last 10 000 years with significant consequences for forest composition and structure. Hunting statistics and archival records permit crude reconstructions of population dynamics for certain ungulate species. High resolution pollen analysis and long-term monitoring generate reconstructions of vegetation that can be compared with fluctuating grazing pressure during the last few hundred years. Such data can be used to validate simulation models of grazing–vegetation interactions.     

Dispersal of vascular plants by game in northern Germany. Part I: Roe deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis>) and wild boar (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Sus scrofa</Emphasis>)

The endozoochorous and epizoochorous dispersal of vascular plant species by roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) was investigated in forest areas of Schleswig-Holstein and Lower Saxony, Germany. The primary aim of this study was to learn about which plant species and in what numbers diaspores are dispersed by the two wild ungulate species. In particular, the significance of zoochory for species composition and biodiversity of forests was evaluated. Fresh faecal pellets were collected from April–November 2001 in the forests of the two study areas. In addition, the coats and hooves of shot roe deer and wild boar were brushed out. The number of viable seeds was determined by greenhouse germination (seedling emergence method). The samples were spread in trays over sterilized soil from the study forests and were kept under controlled conditions in the greenhouse for 12 months. A total of 2,473 individuals from 77 vascular plant species were recorded. While roe deer exceeded wild boar concerning seed contents in the faeces, the significance of roe deer for epizoochorous dispersal was relatively low compared with wild boar. An analysis of the habitat preference of the vascular plant species dispersed by the two ungulate species revealed a high proportion of species growing in forests as well as in the open landscape, and also of non-forest species, while woody plants and herbaceous species closely tied to forest habitats were severely underrepresented. We also discuss consequences for forest ecology and nature conservation.     

Effects of white-tailed deer on vegetation structure and woody seedling composition in three forest types on the Piedmont Plateau

White-tailed deer (Ododcoileus virginiana) can substantially affect the structure and species composition of a forest. The tolerance of a forest community to browsing may vary by type as a result of varying biotic and abiotic factors of the environment. To date, no studies have compared the effects of browsing among forest communities within a physiographic region. We investigated the effects of browsing on vegetation structure and woody seedling composition in three forest types (oak–hickory, Virginia pine–eastern red cedar, bottomland hardwood) in Manassas National Battlefield Park (MNBP), Virginia, USA. We compared forb cover, vertical plant cover (0–1.5 m tall), and survival of tagged seedlings in 10 exclosed (2 m × 6 m) and 10 unexclosed plots in each forest type during a 5-year period. No differential effects of browsing were found among forest types. In all forest types, deer (67 deer/km²) suppressed forb and vertical plant cover to levels less than would be expected in the absence of deer. Seedling survival rates of most species were significantly reduced by browsing. By the 4th year of the study, box elder (Acer negundo), hickory (Carya spp.), and red maple (Acer rubrum) had been eliminated from unexclosed plots, and red and white oaks (Quercus spp.) dramatically reduced. Ash (Fraxinus spp.), black cherry (Prunus serotina), and hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), although significantly impacted, remained the most abundant species throughout the study. These findings suggest that white-tailed deer may be modifying the structure of the forest interior to the extent that it adversely affects wildlife species dependent on a dense understory to thrive. We predict that the future composition of forests in MNBP will shift towards stands with fewer species and a greater dominance of ash, black cherry, and hackberry, particularly in the oak–hickory and bottomland hardwood forests, where the majority of current dominants are most affected.     

Interspecific interactions of ungulates in European forests: an overview

Mammalian herbivores vary in the degree to which they browse, graze and cause physical disturbance, and so vary in the effects they have on the structure and composition of forest ecosystems. To create predictive models of the interactions of forest ecosystems with herbivore communities, an appreciation of the interactions between the species of herbivore themselves is necessary. This paper reviews interspecific interactions of ungulates, methods used in studying them, and seeks to identify areas to which future research should be directed in the context of European forest systems. Methods that have been used to provide information on interactions include: comparative resource studies, niche theory, physiological and anatomical analyses, modeling and foraging theory, and population studies. The most commonly reported types of interactions appear to be competition and facilitation. Behavioural and social interactions between species are potentially important, but evidence for these is scarce and often anecdotal. It is suggested that there may be considerable potential for ungulates to interact in European forests which are often significantly altered from their natural state. Future research should aim at refining the theoretical understanding of interspecific interactions, particularly between ungulates with different feeding ecologies. The roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) has a major impact on forest ecosystems and is increasing its range throughout Europe. However, there is evidence that it may be displaced or out-competed by a number of ungulate species, and it is suggested as being research priority to quantify these effects.     

Modeling successional patterns of high-elevation forests under changing herbivore pressure – responses at the landscape level

We describe an ecological risk assessment for determining the potential long-term impacts of browsing by red deer, roe deer and chamois on the stand dynamics of mountain forests in xeric parts of Central Europe. The assessment is performed by applying a forest succession model of the FORET/JABOWA type which was supplemented with an empirically based browsing subroutine to simulate the effects of browsing by red and roe deer, and chamois. The following scenarios are assumed: (1) no browsing; (2) actual browsing intensity as determined in field trials; (3) browsing intensity twice as high as in scenario (2); and (4) browsing intensity three times as high as in scenario (2). The simulations for two different forest sites in the subalpine region of Eastern Switzerland revealed that heavy browsing can alter development and composition of the observed forests. The extent of this alteration was influenced not only by high browsing intensity, but also by the selection of tree species which were browsed on a particular site at the same time. Taking into account all the uncertainties of the model approach, we conclude from our preliminary studies that, in the regions considered, even strong herbivore pressure (2–3 times today's values) is not a major threat for the survival of the forest as a biological resource, i.e. the long-term total woody biomass is not altered significantly and the changes in the successional pathways are not dramatic. High browsing intensities, however, alter the forest structure considerably. We found that heavily browsed forests tend to be more open, mortality is higher and trees reach an intermediate and adult size quicker. This shortened development cycle of the stands may have implications for forest functions. The risk assessment yields critical values for mean browsing intensity, ‘MBI', (Pinus cembra/Pinus mugo: 30%; Picea abies: 50%; and Larix decidua: 40%), below which successional patterns and forest structures with browsing are not significantly different from forest succession without browsing.     

Effects of sika deer (Cervus nippon yakushimae) population growth on saplings in an evergreen broad-leaved forest

An increase in size of sika deer populations has caused severe damage to forest vegetation in many regions of Japan. In a Natural World Heritage area on the western part of Yakushima Island, existing high densities of deer are thought to be increasing, but the impact of deer on forest vegetation has not been estimated. Roadside censuses of deer between 1988 and 2006 showed that encounter rates are continuing to increase. Long-term monitoring of individual tree saplings in a 0.13 ha area of the forest between 1992 and 2005 showed that many saplings still remain despite increases in sika deer density. However, differences in growth and mortality rates of preferred, neutral (neither preferred nor avoided) and avoided sika deer food species varied over time. As a group, preferred species continuously had a low growth rate, while their mortality rate increased through time. The growth rates of the neutral and avoided groups decreased especially in the second half of our study period at the same time that their mortality rates increased. These data suggest that in spite of food species preference, direct feeding pressures as well as indirect physical effects by increasing sika deer density are affecting growth and mortality of tree saplings. Clearly, it is difficult to predict how plant communities will respond to possible continued sika deer population growth, and it is therefore important to continue monitoring these forest communities in the interest of preserving the unique ecosystems on Yakushima Island.     

Impact of bark stripping by sika deer, Cervus nippon, on subalpine coniferous forests in central Japan

We investigated the effect of bark stripping by sika deer, Cervus nippon, on forest regeneration in subalpine coniferous forests on Mt. Ohdaigahara and in the Ohmine Mountains of central Japan. Bark stripping by sika deer occurred in five major tree species: Abies homolepis; Abies Veitchii; Tsuga diversifolia; Picea jezoensis var. hondoensis; and Chamaecyparis obtusa. The percentage of damaged trees on Mt. Ohdaigahara was higher than in the Ohmine Mountains, probably because of the higher deer density. On Mt. Ohdaigahara, the DBH distributions of stems for P. jezoensis var. hondoensis, A. homolepis, T. diversifolia andC. obtusa were bell-shaped with fewer smaller and larger trees. On the other hand, in the Ohmine Mountains the distributions for P. jezoensis var. hondoensis and A. Veitchii showed a reverse-J shaped with more smaller trees. Larger overstory conifers on Mt. Ohdaigahara were killed by bark stripping when 100% barked, although in the Ohmine Mountains ca. 50% of the trees survived even when 100% barked. After the disappearance of the overstory conifers on Mt. Ohdaigahara, the dwarf bamboo, Sasa nipponica, expanded into the forest floor due to changes in light reaching the forest floor. Since S. nipponica is the main forage of deer in this area, this increase caused a corresponding increase in the deer population, which in turn, could cause a further decline in the coniferous forests.     

Habitat selection by ungulates in relation to predation risk by wolves and humans in the Białowieża Forest, Poland

Predation risk is an important factor influencing the distribution of ungulates and their impact on forest structure. However, simultaneous predation risk by wolves and humans is rarely considered in the analyses of habitat selection by ungulates. We counted ungulate pellets on transects to analyse the influence of wolves and humans on ungulate density distribution in the Białowieża Forest, Poland. We assessed whether (1) forest exploitation influenced ungulate habitat selection, (2) ungulate density was higher in areas without human hunting, (3) ungulates avoided the surroundings of a major road, (4) prey density was higher in the strife zone between home ranges of wolf packs both in the presence and absence of human hunting, (5) ungulates avoided areas selected by wolves, and (6) wolf kill sites were in high prey density areas. Red deer (Cervus elaphus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) selected unexploited over exploited forests and areas without hunting, whereas roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) preferred exploited forests. Wild boar and European bison (Bison bonasus) avoided the area within 300 m of a major road, whereas we could not detect any avoidance by red or roe deer. Prey density was not higher in wolf strife zones, regardless of human hunting. Ungulates did not avoid areas selected by wolves. Wolves killed red deer in areas with prey density of about 4 red deer/km², regardless of whether the average red deer density in those areas was higher or lower. We conclude that habitat alteration by forest exploitation and hunting by humans influenced the density distribution of ungulates more than predation risk by wolves.     

基于MaxEnt模型的白水河国家级保护区有蹄类保护动物生境适宜性评价

通过MaxEnt模型对白水河国家级自然保护区4种有蹄类保护物种进行生境适宜性评价,研究结果如下:(1)20次重复后斑羚、鬣羚、林麝、羚牛的训练集AUC值分别为0.962、0.947、0.924和0.945;(2)斑羚、鬣羚、林麝、羚牛得适宜栖息地分别占保护区总面积的14%、27%、25%、24%,次适宜栖息地占保护区总面积的27%、19%、35%、34%,不适宜栖息地占保护区总面积59%、54%、40%、42%;(3)对斑羚贡献最大的3个环境因子是坡向、坡度和落叶灌丛,对鬣羚贡献最大的3个环境因子是竹林、栽培竹林和落叶灌丛,对林麝贡献最大的3个环境因子是坡向、落叶灌丛和竹林,对羚牛贡献最大的3个环境因子是坡向、竹林以及落叶阔叶林。     

Conifer leader browsing by roe deer in English upland forests: Effects of deer density and understorey vegetation

At moderate to high densities ungulates can impact negatively on forest crops and these may be managed by lethal control. In production forestry an understanding of the relationship between ungulate density, habitat-related factors and the incidence of tree damage may promote more efficient ungulate damage management than by lethal control alone. In plantation forests in the north east of England, the incidence of conifer leader browsing by roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) was positively associated with an index of deer density (at the site scale) and planted crop tree density (at the feeding patch scale) and was negatively associated with the relative abundance of palatable understorey vegetation (at the site scale). An interaction between the deer density index and palatable understorey browse abundance was positively associated with leader browsing. Coefficients from the optimal model were used to construct a browse probability surface across a matrix of values of deer dung density and palatable understorey vegetation abundance. This illustrated a very different relationship between dung density and conifer leader browsing probability across the various levels of palatable understorey vegetation abundance. From this we hypothesise that in areas of limited palatable understorey vegetation abundance, higher levels of culling may be required to achieve reductions in the incidence of conifer leader browsing than would be necessary in areas with moderate to high palatable understorey vegetation abundance. Improvements to understorey vegetation in concert with roe deer population control may enhance the efficiency of deer damage management in upland areas with nutrient-poor soils.     

Structure and regeneration dynamics of dominant tree species along altitudinal gradient in a dry valley slopes of the Bhutan Himalaya

The aim of our study was to characterize the structure and regeneration dynamics of dominant tree species along altitudinal gradient in dry valley slopes of the Bhutan Himalaya. In the typical dry valley slopes of west-central Bhutan, we analyzed forest stratification, tree crown projection, and population structure from lower dry valley bottom (1520 m a.s.l.) to upper humid ridge top (3370 m a.s.l.) across five major forest types: i.e. (1) dry pine forest with Pinus roxburghii as a dominant species; (2) mixed broad-leaved forest with Quercus lanata (evergreen), Quercus griffithii, (deciduous), and Rhododendron arboreum (evergreen) as major canopy species; (3) evergreen broad-leaved forest dominated by Quercus semecarpifolia, Quercus glauca and Quercus oxyodon; (4) cool conifer forest dominated by Abies densa and Tsuga dumosa; (5) cold conifer forest with A. densa and Juniperus recurva as dominants. In general, regeneration pattern of major dominant species shifted from inverse-J (lower altitudes), to sporadic (mid-altitudes), and to uni-modal type (upper altitudes) corresponding to three regeneration trends: (1) invasive at the lower, warm, dry forest under relatively strong human disturbances; (2) stable/balanced at the mid-altitude, in a relatively stable, mature moist evergreen broad-leaved forest with gap regeneration; and (3) poor/low regeneration at the upper, cool, humid conifer forest with a continuously cattle-grazed understory. Overall, regeneration patterns were balanced in all forest types, however care should be taken to prevent excessive exploitation of dry pine forest of lower valley bottom, and to control cattle grazing at higher altitudes. Our findings can be incorporated into management plans for sustainable management and conservation of mountain forests.     

Deer density effects on vegetation in aspen forest understories over site productivity and stand age gradients

Studies examining the interacting effects of ungulate herbivore pressure and site productivity on vegetation are mostly on grassland-grazing systems and have shown conflicting patterns. Here we examine the effects of deer density (>30 years differences in density between two landowners), site productivity (site index, SI) and stand age on subcanopy vegetation characteristics in 60 closed canopy, clear-cut origin Populus tremuloides dominated stands, Michigan, USA. Stand age effects were included because age varied among stands and can affect subcanopy vegetation patterns. Compared with fewer deer, stands with more deer had greater total forest floor vegetation mass, and its major components bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum), sedge (mostly Carex pensylvanica) and trees/shrubs <0.25 m tall, but lower forb mass and lower forest floor vegetation species richness and diversity. Deer density and SI had strong interacting effects on total forest floor mass, forb mass, and species richness. Forb mass increased with SI, but only in stands with fewer deer, whilst total vegetation mass was greater in stands with more deer at lower SI and declined with SI more sharply than for stands with fewer deer. Species richness increased with SI but more so at lower than higher deer density. Deer density and age had interacting effects on mass of trees/shrubs <0.25 m tall and sedge. Compared with fewer deer, stands with more deer had greater sedge and tree/shrub mass, and sedge mass decreased and tree/shrub mass increased more sharply with age. In lower deer stands there was a dense subcanopy tree and shrub strata within and beyond the reach of deer 0.9-10 m tall whereas in higher deer stands this vegetation layer was nearly absent. We conclude that higher deer browse pressure in early successional Populus stands (1) strongly limits the recruitment of woody stems to larger (>0.9 m tall) size classes, which could affect long-term successional trajectories, and (2) diminishes forb density and species richness, especially at higher site productivity, but increases total forest floor vegetation mass (mostly bracken fern and sedge), especially at lower site productivity. Given associations of bracken fern and sedge with poorer and/or more open sites and assuming high palatability of forbs, this pattern may result from the combination of selective herbivory and higher light availability caused by limited recruitment of trees and shrubs to taller strata.     

Ungulate browsing on conifers during summer as revealed by DNA

Young trees are particularly vulnerable to browsing by ungulates, since most, or all, of their canopies are within browsing height. In tree species with strong apical dominance, browsing may also affect the structural development of the tree, causing impaired timber quality. Across Sweden, ungulate communities comprise multiple coexisting species, making it a challenge to determine which herbivore species have caused the browsing damages. However, correct identification of the culprits is pivotal for the appropriate management actions to be undertaken. In central Sweden, forest plantation owners recently reported a perceived increase in browsing damages on conifers, primarily Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). Concurrent with this increase in browsing damages, they noticed an increase in the population of red deer in the area, leading them to suspect that the red deer (Cervus elaphus) were the primary browsers responsible for the damages. Browsed twig samples were sent to us so that we could identify the responsible browsing species using DNA. We discovered that 73.7% of the damages were actually attributable to moose (Alces alces) with 24.7% caused by red deer and 1.5% by fallow deer (Cervus dama). DNA diagnostics can thus yield important information regarding multispecies assemblages enabling managers to correctly identify the relative contributions of different species to browsing damages.     

FEEDING HABITS OF HAINAN ELDI''''S DEER

Hainan eldi's deer is a precious species of deer in the tropic zone,it is regardedas the first—class animal under protection in China.Based on all-year-round observation on thedeer's feeding habit in the reserve from 1985 to 1988,we discovered that Hainan eldi’s deer is aeuryphangous herbivore.They take various herbs as their main food and have fairly strongselectivity for woody plants,especially tending to eat the tender parts of plants and some fruits andflowers.Like other species of deer,they also like to lick the alkaline soil.This paper reports the re-search and evaluation on the feeding and choosing food characteristics of Hainan eldi’s deer,and onthe palatability of the main plants in the reserve.     

Long-term responses of ecosystem components to stand thinning in young lodgepole pine forest: IV. Relative habitat use by mammalian herbivores

Pre-commercial thinning (PCT) is a silvicultural practice that can provide diverse understory and overstory vegetation conditions. We tested the hypothesis that relative habitat use by snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), and moose (Alces alces) would increase in response to enhanced abundance of herbs and shrubs, and species diversity and structural diversity of conifers, in heavily thinned (≤1000 stems/ha) stands, at 12–15 years post-thinning. Replicate study areas were located near Penticton, Kamloops, and Prince George in south-central British Columbia, Canada. Each study area had three young pine stands thinned to densities of 500 stems/ha (low), 1000 stems/ha (medium), and 2000 stems/ha (high), with an unthinned young pine and old-growth pine stand for comparison.

Relative habitat use, based on counts of fecal pellets and pellet-groups, was similar among the five treatment stands for hares (P = 0.24), deer (P = 0.23), and moose (P = 0.16). However, low-density stands (500 stems/ha) had ca. 3–20 times as many deer pellet-groups, and ca. 2–4 times as many moose pellet-groups, than other stands. Low-density stands had significantly greater canopy openness, volume of shrubs <2 m, and horizontal hiding cover <1.6 m than other treatments. Relative habitat use by deer and moose was positively related to understory characteristics such as enhanced abundance of forage and security cover. These results support our hypothesis that deer and moose responded positively to enhanced volume of herbs and shrubs as well as to species diversity and structural diversity of conifers and overall vegetation in heavily thinned (≤1000 stems/ha) stands at 12–15 years post-thinning. Our results suggest that ungulate management would be enhanced if greater emphasis was placed on forage enhancement throughout the year, which differs from current management recommendations which tend to focus on winter range and snow-interception cover.     

What factors affect national-scale deer population dynamics in the Republic of Ireland?

Research into deer population dynamics has mostly focused on community or landscape scales in the Republic of Ireland. However, in order to propose national deer management strategies to confront the increasing deer populations in recent years, a larger scale analysis of deer populations is necessary. In this inter-county, national study, generalised linear mixed models were utilised to examine the relationship between the harvest rate (defined as the numbers harvested per 100?ha in this study) data and factors identified in past research as contributing to deer population dynamics on a county basis, where annual county-level deer harvest records were used to reflect deer populations by species. The procedures were repeated for each species and significant factors and their impacts were identified for each county. The results suggested that multiple factors affect deer population dynamics; for instance, increases in forest cover tended to result in increases in deer populations of all species, and the presence of red and sika deer populations in a county had a positive influence on hybrid deer populations. National migration maps for each deer species were produced, as well as predictions of future population trends. The outcome of this study can be used to guide the development of a national deer management strategy and the prioritisation, on a regional basis, of deer control measures.     

Deer prevent western redcedar (Thuya plicata) regeneration in old-growth forests of Haida Gwaii: Is there a potential for recovery?

The current increase in deer populations in many forests has fostered a growing concern about their impact on forest ecology. Sitka black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus sitchensis) were introduced to Haida Gwaii (British Columbia, Canada) in the late 19th century, and they have dramatically affected the regeneration of woody species in both old- and second-growth forests since then. The lack of recruitment in western redcedar (Thuja plicata) in old-growth forests has been attributed to deer. The objectives of this study were to (1) experimentally confirm that deer browsing causes a lack of western redcedar recruitment and (2) assess the potential for and speed of recovery after a prolonged exclusion of deer. We installed a set of 20 enclosures and monitored them over a period of 8 years from 1997 to 2005. We compared temporal changes in redcedar cover and in the survival and growth of marked seedlings in plots that were or were not accessible to deer. Redcedar cover in the vegetation layer accessible to deer was generally low (from 3 to 5%) but higher inside the enclosures (an average difference of 2.3%). Protected seedlings survived better, were higher, presented more leafed shoots, and had less stems than unprotected individuals, features that suggest that deer were key to the lack of regeneration. However, growth was very slow (protected marked seedlings grew 2.5 cm on average in 8 years) and, under the current conditions, the time required for a protected seedling to escape deer would probably take over two decades. This very slow growth rate under closed canopy conditions probably reflects a gap-phase regeneration strategy and/or sensitivity to competition with other woody species. The combination of a very slow growth with a high palatability and a lack of physical defences, in contrast to the other dominant conifers in this ecosystem, probably explain why redcedar regeneration can be eliminated from old-growth forest by abundant deer populations.     

Spatial heterogeneity of winter forest resources used by deer

Monitoring red deer (Cervus elaphus) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) populations is a key aspect of wildlife management in Europe, so the utilization of resources must be considered. However, the spatial distribution of resources used has often been overlooked. We studied spatial heterogeneity of winter forest resources used by deer and applied an indirect method to evaluate the browsing pressure of these cervids in a forest of the Cévennes National Park (Lozère, France). We analyzed the pattern of browsing by principal component analysis (PCA) and graphical display. We demonstrated that heather (Calluna vulgaris), bilberry (Vaccinium sp.) and beech (Fagus sylvatica), which figured in more than 50% of the browsing observed, were unevenly consumed in the study area. Moreover, the deer consumed more beech outside high beech forest. Our methodology provides a helpful tool to monitor browse–ungulate interaction by taking into account the availability of key browse resources.     

陕西省三道门森林公园林麝苑规划设计初探

本文结合陕西省三道门森林公园良好的自然环境,通过采用发展林下经济-林麝特色养殖的方式,对该公园林麝苑进行规划设计。该项目以人工养殖林麝为主,建成运营后既能保护好现有森林公园林地资源,又可增加当地林麝数量,对保护林麝具有一定的积极作用,同时促进了当地的林下经济发展。项目实施后将成为发展陕南山地林下养殖的积极探索和有益尝试,为陕南地区林下经济产业发展提供有价值的参考。