Liming and fertilization of acid forest soil: Short-term effects on runoff from small catchments

Increased atmospheric deposition of strong acids and deposition of potentially acidifying compounds (e.g. ammonium) has caused a decline in pH and exchangeable base cations in forest soils in Sweden. In recent years, attention has been paid to liming of forest soil as a method to counteract the effects of acid deposition. Experiments with liming, fertilization and woodash treatment of acid forest soils started in 1984. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of low doses of lime (500 to 1500 kg ha^–1) in combination with N fertilizers on tree growth, nutritional status of trees as well as soil, and runoff chemistry. This paper describes the short term effects of liming and fertilization on runoff from ten small catchments in two regions in south Sweden. The effects of liming were small in both areas. In the catchments fertilized with N (NH₄NO₃), a substantial leakage of various N species appeared in runoff after treatment. The increased N output was dominated by nitrate. The excess leakage of N during 2 yr after fertilization was 25 and 13% as an average of the applied N in the two study areas. The mobile nitrate increased the base cations output via runoff with 10 to 100% during 1 yr after N treatment. The runoff of Al increased with 60 to 1009, the first year in the fertilized catchments. Mobilization of cations was also influenced by ammonium, especially K that was exchanged by ammonium on the surface of the soil particles. The effects of woodash-treatment were small, however, sulfate in the ash leaked out following application and about 100% of the added sulfate was found in runoff during the first year.     

Liming and fertilization of acid forest soil: Short-term effects on runoff from small catchments

Increased atmospheric deposition of strong acids and deposition of potentially acidifying compounds (e.g. ammonium) has caused a decline in pH and exchangeable base cations in forest soils in Sweden. In recent years, attention has been paid to liming of forest soil as a method to counteract the effects of acid deposition. Experiments with liming, fertilization and woodash treatment of acid forest soils started in 1984. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of low doses of lime (500 to 1500 kg ha^?1) in combination with N fertilizers on tree growth, nutritional status of trees as well as soil, and runoff chemistry. This paper describes the short term effects of liming and fertilization on runoff from ten small catchments in two regions in south Sweden. The effects of liming were small in both areas. In the catchments fertilized with N (NH₄NO₃), a substantial leakage of various N species appeared in runoff after treatment. The increased N output was dominated by nitrate. The excess leakage of N during 2 yr after fertilization was 25 and 13% as an average of the applied N in the two study areas. The mobile nitrate increased the base cations output via runoff with 10 to 100% during 1 yr after N treatment. The runoff of Al increased with 60 to 100% the first year in the fertilized catchments. Mobilization of cations was also influenced by ammonium, especially K that was exchanged by ammonium on the surface of the soil particles. The effects of woodash-treatment were small, however, sulfate in the ash leaked out following application and about 100% of the added sulfate was found in runoff during the first year.     

Can forest-soil liming mitigate acidification of surface waters in Sweden?

Acidification of surface waters and forest soils is severe in large parts of southern Sweden. The shallow groundwaters are also affected. Large scale liming of surface waters and streams is in operation, often combined with wetland liming to limit the effects of acid episodes, e.g. at snow melt. Acid episodes are perhaps the most severe problem in limed surface waters and in many as yet well buffered waters, because of temperature-layered acid inflow, often superficial. As a result of some investigations, a large scale forest liming programme covering 6.500–10.000 km² was recently suggested. The main objectives of this forest liming programme are to retard cation depletion and to prevent nutrient imbalance and forest decline in acidified areas. This paper deals with the effects of forest soil liming on streams and surface waters. The response of water chemistry is very dependent on hydrological and soil properties. Although pH itself may be little affected by liming, the acidity (or negative ANC) decreases, inorganic Al-species decrease and the Al/BC-ratio increases in the runoff water. Especially interesting is that this is also true during acid episodes. This means that toxicity for acid sensitive biota decreases. These results indicate that large scale liming may have beneficial effects on surface water chemistry. Furthermore, as surface waters are expected to respond to smaller decreases in acid deposition than do forests soils, forest soil liming may allow less frequent liming of lakes. Consequently, forest soil liming in combination with the anticipated emission reductions may have very beneficial results on surface waters in certain areas of Sweden.     

Water chemistry in forested catchments after topsoil treatment with liming agents in South Sweden

Critical loads of sulphur and nitrogen are exceeded in South Sweden, and nutritional imbalances are expected to appear with time in forests. During 1984 paired catchments were established in a northwestern-southeastern gradient in South Sweden. The aim was to study long-term liming effects on throughfall, soil water, groundwater and runoff. Dolomitic limestone and wood ash were tested at one locality, Hagfors (59° N). Three adjacent catchments were used; one reference area, one treated with dolomitic lime (0.5 kg/m²) in 1985, and one with wood fly ash (0.22 kg/m²) in 1988. The lime and the fly ash was granulated and applied by a helicopter in the end of May. Measurements concerning chemistry of the precipitation, throughfall, soil water and runoff has been conducted since spring 1984. The results showed that top-soil spreading of liming agents, besides the desired effects on soil chemistry, after some years also affected the quality of the recipient water. In the dolomitic lime treated catchment the positive effects were most obvious, with raised pH-, Ca-, and Mg-values and lowered Al-, Fe- and Mn-values. A positive trend regarding lower nitrogen (NO₃ ^?) leaching could also be calculated. Wood ash in the used amount affected only slowly, but after six years the runoff water indicated increased pH-values as well as increased Ca- and K-values and Ca/Al-ratios. Dolomitic lime in the amounts of 0.5 kg/m² was concluded to be sufficient to achieve positive effects in catchments of the present type. Wood ash in the amount of 0.22 kg/m² although enough for recycling purposes, was not sufficient enough in increasing pH in runoff to prevent acid leaching from the forest soils.     

Evaluation of leaching and runoff losses of selenium from seleniferous soils through simulated rainfall

Experiments were conducted to study drainage and runoff losses of selenium (Se) from two seleniferous soils (from Simbly containing total Se 850 μg [kg soil]^–1 and from Barwa containing 1310 μg [kg soil]^–1) under simulated rainfall (250–260 mm in three rainstorms) conditions. Rainfall intensities ranged from 56 to 120 mm h^–1 with uniformity coefficients ranging from 70.6% to 84.2%. Selenium lost through drainage (sum of drainage from initially saturated soil for 24 h and through dry and wet runs) was 0.15% and 0.11% of total Se content in the two soils. In soils having similar pH and organic‐C content, losses of Se through drainage as well as runoff were defined by total Se, water‐soluble Se, CaCO₃ content, and texture of the soils. The amount of runoff water was almost two times in the soil with fine texture and less infiltration rate than in the other and that same trend was observed with respect to loss of sediment. The soil with higher CaCO₃ content and water‐soluble Se lost more Se with moving water both through leaching and runoff, whereas the other soil with fine texture lost greater amount of Se with the sediment. Total Se lost through drainage as well as runoff was 0.29% of the native Se present in both the soils suggesting that significant amount of Se could be lost from seleniferous soils during irrigation and rainfall events.     

Quantification of Heavy Metals from A.M.D. Discharged into a Public Water Supply Dam in the Iberian Pyrite Belt (SW Spain) Using Centered Moving Average

In this work, the determination of moving averages is proposed as a method for quantifying metal, arsenic, and sulfate discharges into a water course undergoing acid mine drainage processes which flows into a public water supply dam in the Iberian Pyrite Belt. The analysis of the results obtained by applying moving averages shows that the highest metal and sulfate concentrations occur in October, coinciding with the first rainfall and the sponging of mine dumps, with November and December being the months when the highest contributions to the Andevalo Dam take place. The discharge of acid mine waters with its corresponding metal load into the Andevalo Dam means, for a single hydrological year, more than 6,000 t of sulfates, almost 600 t of iron, and 1 t of As, of special relevance for the hydrochemical quality of the stored waters. When they arrive at the dam, these metals precipitate, since the water pH is near 7, and remain latent in the bottom sediment as long as the chemical makeup of the dam water does not change.     

WHOLE-CATCHMENT LIMING AT TJØNNSTROND,NORWAY: AN 11-YEAR RECORD

In June 1983 a whole-catchment liming experiment was conducted at Tjønnstrond, southernmost Norway, to test the utility of terrestrial liming as a technique to restore fish populations in remote lakes with short water-retention times. Tjønnstrond consists of 2 small ponds of 3.0 and 1.5 ha in area which drain a 25-ha catchment. The area is located at about 650–700 meters above sea-level in sparse and unproductive forests of spruce, pine and birch with abundant peatlands. A dose of 3 ton/ha of powdered limestone were spread by helicopter to the terrestrial area. No limestone was added to the ponds themselves. The ponds were subsequently stocked with brown and brook trout. Liming caused large and immediate changes in surface water chemistry; pH increased from 4.5 to 7.0, Ca increased from 40 to 200 μeq/L, ANC increased from –30 to +70 μeq/L, and reactive-Al decreased from about 10 to 3 μmol/L. During the subsequent 11 years the chemical composition of runoff has decreased gradually back towards the acidic pre-treatment situation. The major trends in concentrations of runoff Ca, ANC, pH, Al and NO₃ in runoff are all well simulated by the acidification model MAGIC. Neither the measured data nor the MAGIC simulations indicate significant changes in any other major ion as a result of liming. The soils at Tjønnstrond in 1992 contained significantly higher amounts of exchangeable Ca relative to those at the untreated reference catchment Storgama. In 1992 about 75% of the added Ca remains in the soil as exchangeable Ca, 15% has been lost in runoff, and 10% is unaccounted for. The whole-catchment liming experiment at Tjønnstrond clearly demonstrates that this liming technique produces a long-term stable and favourable water quality for fish. Brown trout in both ponds in 1994 have good condition factors, which indicate that the fish are not stressed by marginal water quality due to re-acidification. The water quality is still adequate after 11 years and >20 water renewals. Concentrations of H⁺ and inorganic Al have gradually increased and approach levels toxic to trout, but the toxicity of these are offset by the continued elevated Ca concentrations. Reduced sulphate deposition during the last 4 years (1990–94) has also helped to slow and even reverse the rate of reacidification. The experiment at Tjønnstrond demonstrates that for this type of upland, remote terrain typical of large areas of southern Norway, terrestrial liming offers a suitable mitigation technique for treating acidified surface waters with short retention times.     

灌排控制措施结合沟塘湿地改善水稻灌区排水水质的模拟分析

针对水稻灌区农田排水氮素输出影响水环境的问题,该研究以大运河扬州段沿运灌区为例,在大田监测的基础上,运用田间水文模型--DRAINMOD模拟分析不同田间灌排控制措施的减排效果,并探讨利用农田周边沟塘湿地净化排水,达到灌区小流域不同水质目标的水管理方案。结果表明,在研究区目前常规灌溉（定额为9 600 m3/hm2,合水深960 mm）和常规排水（排水沟深0.6 m,等效间距50 m）模式下,农田单位面积上的年均排水总量高达1 162 mm,是灌溉量与降雨量之和的59%;其中地表径流占比51%,仅有25%是由降雨造成的不可控部分。采取理想的避免地表径流的干湿交替控制灌溉措施（年均灌溉量320 mm）可以显著降低排水量和氨氮的输出,相较于常规灌溉模式,可削减55%的排水量和59%的氨氮输出。研究区农田控制排水削减排水总量的效果较差,且在一定程度上增加了地表径流。由于地表排水中氨氮浓度（2.85 mg/L）高于地下排水（其浓度为1.80 mg/L）,地表排水比例的提高会增加排水对氨氮的输出。从研究区小流域范围内沟塘湿地分布考虑,目前灌溉与排水量均过高,现有沟塘湿地不足以发挥作用;只有通过控制灌溉措施显著减少排水量以后,才有可能利用现存的湿地面积将排水中的氨氮浓度降低到地表水水质标准Ⅴ类水。因此,该研究建议在合理控制灌排水量的基础上,通过整合、优化灌区现有沟塘湿地资源来有效改善研究区农田排水水质。研究可为类似地区农田排水污染控制提供理论依据。     

粪肥添加明矾对降低农田磷和重金属流失的作用

施用粪肥引起农田氮、磷流失的增加已引起人们广泛的关注。为了解粪肥中添加明矾可否降低农田污染物的流失,采用化学分析与田间试验相结合的方法研究了添加明矾对粪肥中水溶性养分和重金属浓度及施粪肥后农田养分、重金属流失的影响。结果表明,粪肥中添加明矾可大大降低其中的水溶性P和重金属浓度,其中水溶性P的下降幅度达79.3%。添加明矾后,粪肥施入农田形成的径流中P和重金属浓度明显低于不添加明矾的处理。但添加明矾对农田可溶性总N、NO3-N和NH4-N流失的影响不大。粪肥中添加明矾不会引起地表径流中铝浓度明显增加,对蔬菜产量影响不明显。     

Concentrations of Free and Conjugated Estrogens at Different Landscape Positions in an Agricultural Watershed Receiving Poultry Litter

Animal hormones can enter the aquatic environment along with runoff as a result of manure or litter application on agricultural landscapes. Our understanding of the transport of these hormones and their concentrations at various points along the watershed drainage is however limited. We investigated the transport of naturally produced poultry hormones in an agricultural watershed located on coastal plain soils of Delaware receiving land application of raw poultry manure. The objective of this study was to determine the concentrations of free and conjugated forms of estrogens in agricultural runoff at selected landscape positions in the agricultural watershed. Estrogen concentrations were determined for surface water, soil water, and runoff sediment. Estrogen forms that were analyzed were: Estrone (E1), Estradiol (E2?? and E2??), Estriol (E3), and their sulfate and glucuronide conjugates. Poultry litter application occurred at a rate of 9 Mg ha^?1 in early spring (April 2010). Sampling was performed for surface runoff, subsurface drainage, and sediment for nine storm events extending over 187 days before and after manure application (March?COctober 2010). Runoff was collected from the field edge, upland and lowland riparian positions and from the stream. Samples were analyzed by for liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Concentrations of estrogens were low (<20 ng l^?1) for most of the samples and decreased from the field edge into the riparian zone. Estrogens were not detected in soil water and runoff sediments. Overall, this study suggests that manure application practices at our sites in Delaware such as incorporation of litter into the soil likely reduced the concentrations of estrogens in runoff and reduced the threat posed to aquatic ecosystems.     

石灰和双氰胺对红壤酸化和硝化作用的影响及其机制

施用石灰是改良酸性土壤的重要措施,但其对土壤硝化作用的增强不仅加速土壤酸化,也增加硝态氮流失风险。传统的硝化抑制剂双氰胺(Dicyandiamide,DCD)能否在石灰改变pH的条件下始终有效抑制硝化是当前红壤区生产中亟需解决的问题。采用短期土壤培养试验,探讨了不同用量石灰与DCD配合施用对土壤酸化和硝化作用的影响及其机制。结果表明:施用一定量的石灰(≤4 g·kg^–1)显著提高土壤pH,通过促进氨氧化细菌的生长以促进硝化作用。在不同pH条件下,DCD对红壤硝化过程均有显著抑制效果。在较高pH(pH 7.0~7.8)条件下,DCD主要通过降低氨氧化细菌的丰度以抑制硝化,而在低pH(pH<6.0)条件下,DCD对氨氧化古菌和氨氧化细菌的丰度均有抑制作用。此外,DCD通过抑制土壤硝化,显著提高了土壤pH。上述结果表明,适宜量(2~4 g·kg^–1)的石灰和DCD结合施用不仅能够减缓红壤酸化,而且能够抑制硝化作用,降低硝态氮的潜在环境风险。     

Terrestrial liming as a tool to mitigate acidification of woods lake,NY

The Soil Liming Model (SLiM) has been used to simulate lake and stream water quality response to different strategies for the application of limestone to subcatchment soils in the Woods Lake, NY watershed. Simulations using doses of 3, 10, or 30 t ha⁻¹ forecast that a dose in excess of 10 t ha⁻¹ must be applied to discharge areas in order to sufficiently improve water quality in the lake. At 3 t ha⁻¹ inlet stream water quality could support fish populations. As expected, treatment effectiveness is strongly influenced by subcatchment hydrologic flow paths. Where shallow flow predominates, soil liming provides a more effective tool for lake water quality improvement. In subcatchments drained primarily by ground water, the effect of liming on water quality is less pronounced albeit of longer duration. Based upon the results of these model simulations, the authors compare results of conventional lake liming to simulated watershed treatment predictions.     

Effects of Goat Manure and Lime Addition on Phosphate Sorption by Two Soils from the Transkei Region,South Africa

More than 40% of soils in the Transkei region, South Africa, have high phosphorous (P) fixation capacities that necessitate application of high P fertilizer rates. This incubation study compared the effectiveness of goat manure (GM) and lime to minimize P sorption in two such soils. Manure application reduced P sorption in both soils, which was partly attributed to the liming effect of GM that resulted in marked reductions of exchangeable aluminum (Al). The liming effect of GM rates followed the order 20 t GM ha^?1 > 10 t GM ha^?1 > 5 t GM ha^?1. Therefore, GM can be cost‐effectively used to lime acid soils in the region and reduce their Al toxicity potential and P fertilizer requirements. Liming reduced P sorption on the Chevy Chase soil soon after application, but P sorption was reduced after 2 months on the Flagstaff soil, suggesting that the timing of liming for improved P availability could be critical for some soils.     

Effects of lime applications to parts of an upland catchment on soil properties and the chemistry of drainage waters

The liming of soils in the lower part of an upland catchment was found to have a major effect on both soil properties and the chemistry of drainage waters. Exchangeable Al was closely correlated with soil pH and showed a very steep rise from 2.6-4.8 meq 1⁻¹ over the pH range 5.5-4.5. As streams flowed from unimproved through improved land there was an increase in pH and the concentration of all major anions and basic cations. The greatest increase was in Ca (approximately 3.5-fold). The concentrations of all dissolved Al species decreased, with inorganic monomeric Al falling to near zero. Leachates were examined from soils representative of the most acidic and the least acidic. Calcium concentrations differed by almost tenfold. Aluminium was present in leachates from the limed soil, but most was unreactive and none was inorganic monomeric. Most of the Al leached from the acid soil was monomeric.
A model of soil acidification is proposed in which soil Ca is depleted at a rate of 8% of the exchangeable Ca per annum. The model predicts that liming a soil to neutrality would be likely to influence drainage water chemistry for 30-40 years and that the most acidic soils of the catchment show no net loss of Ca to drainage.     

Terrestrial liming as a tool to mitigate acidification of Woods Lake,NY

The Soil Liming Model (SLiM) has been used to simulate lake and stream water quality response to different strategies for the application of limestone to subcatchment soils in the Woods Lake, NY watershed. Simulations using doses of 3, 10, or 30 t ha^–1 forecast that a dose in excess of 10 t ha^–1 must be applied to discharge areas in order to sufficiently improve water quality in the lake. At 3 t ha^–1 inlet stream water quality could support fish populations. As expected, treatment effectiveness is strongly influenced by subcatchment hydrologic flow paths. Where shallow flow predominates, soil liming provides a more effective tool for lake water quality improvement. In subcatchments drained primarily by ground water, the effect of liming on water quality is less pronounced albeit of longer duration. Based upon the results of these model simulations, the authors compare results of conventional lake liming to simulated watershed treatment predictions.     

Residue addition and liming history interactively enhance mineralization of native organic carbon in acid soils

Lime application is the most common method to improve crop production in acid soils and has been shown to change soil organic C content. However, the impact of liming history on the priming effect on soil organic C is not well understood. This study examined the effect of liming history on C priming in response to the addition of crop residues of different qualities. Soils with pH ranging from 4.7 to 7.4 were collected from two adjacent field experiments whereby lime was applied at different rates, 6 and 35 years ago. A 90-day incubation study was conducted by applying ¹³C-labelled wheat (C/N 42) and field-pea (C/N 29) residues at a rate of 5 g kg^?1 soil. Residue application to soils yielded the positive priming effect in all pH levels with the magnitude of C priming being the greatest at initial soil pH 6.6. In comparison, the optimal pH for residue decomposition (7.3) was higher than that for priming. The overall priming effect was about 17% greater with field-pea than wheat residue. However, cumulative decomposition of added field-pea residue was 15% lower than that of wheat residue. Furthermore, C priming was greater in soils from the 35-year-old than the 6-year-old limed plots, indicating that a longer history of liming did not enhance the protection of indigenous C from mineralization. The results suggest that increases in soil pH by liming enhanced native C priming through greater microbial biomass and activity and that the magnitude and dynamics of the priming effect largely depended on residue quality and its consequent nutrient supply to decomposer organisms. The study implies that over-liming would likely have negative impacts on the long-term C sequestration.     

广东咸酸田土壤硫化学研究

本文主要研究广东咸酸田土壤硫的基本化学性质和影响咸酸田发生演化的硫的主要化学过程,探讨土壤硫的化学状况与咸酸田诊断分类和利用改良的关系等。研究结果表明:广东咸酸田土壤含硫量极高,主要是黄铁矿(FeS₂)。在咸酸田发生过程中形成一种淡黄色新生体——黄钾铁矾[KFe₃(SO₄)₂(OH)₆]。黄铁矿等硫化物的氧化是咸酸田土壤呈强酸性的主要原因。土壤硫的化学状况特别是黄铁矿和黄钾铁矾在剖面上的分布、数量和形态等与咸酸田的发育程度和改良熟化有密切关系。土壤硫的主要来源是红树林对海水中SO₄^2-的吸收利用和富集。土壤硫化学性质对咸酸田的诊断和分类有重要意义。     

土壤重金属形态对径流中重金属流失的影响

土壤重金属的积累可促进地表径流中重金属的流失,流失量与土壤中重金属的形态有关。田间观测和室内模拟淋洗试验的结果都表明,径流或淋出液中重金属主要来源于土壤的交换态(包括水可溶态)重金属;土壤重金属总量与径流中重金属浓度相关不明显;用稀盐(0.01mol/LCaCl2)和1mol/LNH4OAc提取的土壤重金属量与径流和淋出液中重金属浓度都呈显著的相关,可较好地表征土壤中重金属流失潜力。     

Effects of liming and fertilization on soil solution chemistry in North German forest ecosystems

The effect of aboveground liming and fertilization as well as ploughing and liming of forest soils on soil solution chemistry was studied in various experimental plots of the German Solling area. Due to low solubility of limestone, aboveground liming had only moderate effects on soil pH and base saturation of CEC. Calcium and Mg concentration increased and Ca/Al and Mg/Al ratios of the soil solution improved. Despite extreme doses of lime, nitrate leaching did not increase in the case of a beech plot. Elevated nitrate leaching was found in the case of a spruce and a beech plot previously fertilized with N. Nitrate concentrations are far from drinking water thresholds in the case of beech. Nitrate levels of soil solution of the unfertilized spruce plot are in the range of 3 to 8 mg L⁻¹. Liming did increase these values slightly in the first years, and nitrate levels reached those of the untreated plot in the following years. Ploughing connected with high liming doses obviously led to inhomogeneous distribution of lime. No significant deacidification of seepage water at a depth of 100 cm occurred because of leaching of sulfate from the industrial lime used. This was followed by Al-leaching. Nitrate levels slightly exceeded drinking water standards throughout the first winter period after the measure. The development of young trees was significantly improved.     

Effects of lining and fertilization on soil solution chemistry in North German Forest Ecosystems

The effect of aboveground liming and fertilization as well as ploughing and liming of forest soils on soil solution chemistry was studied in various experimental plots of the German Solling area. Due to low solubility of limestone, aboveground liming had only moderate effects on soil pH and base saturation of CEC. Calcium and Mg concentration increased and Ca/Al and Mg/Al ratios of the soil solution improved. Despite extreme doses of lime, nitrate leaching did not increase in the case of a beech plot. Elevated nitrate leaching was found in the case of a spruce and a beech plot previously fertilized with N. Nitrate concentrations are far from drinking water thresholds in the case of beech. Nitrate levels of soil solution of the unfertilized spruce plot are in the range of 3 to 8 mg L^–1. Liming did increase these values slightly in the first years, and nitrate levels reached those of the untreated plot in the following years. Ploughing connected with high liming doses obviously led to inhomogeneous distribution of lime. No significant deacidification of seepage water at a depth of 100 cm occurred because of leaching of sulfate from the industrial lime used. This was followed by Alleaching. Nitrate levels slightly exceeded drinking water standards throughout the first winter period after the measure. The development of young trees was significantly improved.