Effect of inoculum type and timing of application of Coniothyrium minitans on Sclerotinia sclerotiorum: control of sclerotinia disease in glasshouse lettuce

The effects of Coniothyrium minitans inoculum quality and an 8-week interval between inoculum application and crop planting on sclerotinia ( Sclerotinia sclerotiorum ) disease in three successive lettuce crops were investigated in a glasshouse trial. Spore suspensions of three isolates of C. minitans (Conio, IVT1 and Contans) applied at 10⁸ CFU m⁻² and a standard Conio maizemeal–perlite application (06 L m⁻², 10¹¹ CFU m⁻²) were assessed for their ability to control S. sclerotiorum . Only the maizemeal–perlite inoculum (isolate Conio) consistently reduced sclerotinia disease. In the third lettuce crop only, isolates IVT1 and Contans formulated by Prophyta and isolate IVT as an oil–water formulation, all applied as spore suspensions, reduced disease at harvest compared with the untreated control. Recovery, viability and C. minitans infection of sclerotia buried during the 8-week period prior to each of the three lettuce crops, and of sclerotia formed on the crop, were tested. Only the maizemeal–perlite inoculum (isolate Conio) reduced the recovery of sclerotia buried in soil for weeks between inoculum application and crop planting, reducing their viability and increasing infection by C. minitans . Eight weeks was sufficient to enable C. minitans to infect sclerotia of S. sclerotiorum , and may account for disease control. After harvest of the second and third crops, maizemeal–perlite treatment (isolate Conio) reduced the number and viability of sclerotia recovered on the soil surface and increased infection by C. minitans compared with spore-suspension treatments. The effect of inoculum concentration and the influence of soil temperature (varying with time of year) on infection of sclerotia by C. minitans are discussed.     

Effect of Coniothyrium minitans on sclerotial survival and apothecial production of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in field-grown oilseed rape

In two field trials with oilseed rape, Coniothyrium minitans was applied to soil as a maizemeal-perlite preparation in order to determine its effect on sclerotial survival and apothecial production of Sclerotinia selerotiorum. The mycoparasite infected sclerotia and decreased sclerotial survival, carpogenic germination and production of apothecia. Effects were greatest when inoculum of C. minitans was applied in autumn, at the time of sowing, rather than when it was applied in spring. C. minitans survived in soil for 2 years and spread to adjacent control plots and infected sclerotia within those plots. However, despite the fact that the inoculum potential of S. selerotiorum was reduced by C. minitans treatment, no disease control was obtained either in trial 1, where disease levels were low (0-20% of plant stems affected), or in trial 2, where disease levels were high (up to 70% of plant stems affected). Possible reasons for this failure of C minitans to control sclerotinia disease in oilseed rape, and strategies to improve its efficacy in the field, are discussed.     

除草剂精禾草克和乙草胺对油菜菌核病生防菌盾壳霉生长和寄生的影响

本文研究了油菜田间常用除草剂精禾草克和乙草胺对油菜菌核病生防菌盾壳霉Conio-thyrium minitans的影响。结果表明它们对盾壳霉菌丝生长和分生孢子萌发均有显著的抑制作用,其中精禾草克对盾壳霉菌丝生长和孢子萌发的抑制中浓度分别为2.95mg/L和7.80mg/L;乙草胺对菌丝生长和孢子萌发的抑制中浓度分别为137.45mg/L和120.90mg/L。精禾草克可以抑制盾壳霉寄生核盘菌Sclerotinia sclerotiorum菌核,当精禾草克的使用量达田间使用浓度时,盾壳霉不能寄生核盘菌菌核;而乙草胺对盾壳霉寄生菌核的影响较小,在田间使用浓度1250mg/L时,盾壳霉仍可寄生菌核;乙草胺和盾壳霉在田间使用浓度条件下混合使用,60d后菌核腐烂指数与单独使用盾壳霉没有显著差异,均大于75。上述结果表明在田间使用量条件下,乙草胺可以和盾壳霉生防制剂混用,而精禾草克不宜和盾壳霉混用。     

Interactions between Coniothyrium minitans and Sclerotinia minor affect biocontrol efficacy of C. minitans

Coniothyrium minitans, marketed as Contans, has become a standard management tool against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in a variety of crops, including winter lettuce. However, it has been ineffective against lettuce drop caused by S. minor. The interactions between C. minitans and S minor were investigated to determine the most susceptible stage in culture to attack by C. minitans, and to determine its consistency on S minor isolates belonging to four major mycelial compatibility groups (MCGs). Four isolates of S. minor MCG 1 and 5 each from MCGs 2 and 3 and one from MCG 4 were treated in culture at purely mycelial, a few immature sclerotial, and fully mature sclerotial phases with a conidial suspension of C. minitans. Sclerotia from all treatments were harvested after 4 weeks, air dried, weighed, and plated on potato dextrose agar for recovery of C. minitans. S. minor formed the fewest sclerotia in plates that received C. minitans at the mycelial stage; C. minitans was recovered from nearly all sclerotia from this treatment and sclerotial mortality was total. However, the response of MCGs was inconsistent and variable. Field experiments to determine the efficacy of C. minitans relative to the registered fungicide, Endura, on lettuce drop incidence and soil inoculum dynamics were conducted from 2006 to 2009. All Contans treatments had significantly lower numbers of sclerotia than Endura and unsprayed control treatments, and drop incidence was as low as in Endura-treated plots (P > 0.05). Although the lower levels of lettuce drop in Contans treatments were correlated with significantly lower levels of sclerotia, the lower levels of lettuce drop, despite the presence of higher inoculum in the Endura treatment, was attributable to the prevention of infection by S. minor. A useful approach to sustained lettuce drop management is to employ Contans to lower the number of sclerotia in soil and to apply Endura to prevent S. minor infection within a cropping season.     

Germination of Sclerotinia minor and S. sclerotiorum Sclerotia Under Various Soil Moisture and Temperature Combinations

ABSTRACT Sclerotial germination of three isolates each of Sclerotinia minor and S. sclerotiorum was compared under various soil moisture and temperature combinations in soils from Huron and Salinas, CA. Sclerotia from each isolate in soil disks equilibrated at 0, -0.03, -0.07, -0.1, -0.15, and -0.3 MPa were transferred into petri plates and incubated at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 degrees C. Types and levels of germination in the two species were recorded. Petri plates in which apothecia were observed were transferred into a growth chamber at 15 degrees C with a 12-h light-dark regime. All retrievable sclerotia were recovered 3 months later and tested for viability. Soil type did not affect either the type or level of germination of sclerotia. Mycelial germination was the predominant mode in sclerotia of S. minor, and it occurred between -0.03 and -0.3 MPa and 5 and 25 degrees C, with an optimum at -0.1 MPa and 15 degrees C. No germination occurred at 30 degrees C or 0 MPa. Soil temperature, moisture, or soil type did not affect the viability of sclerotia of either species. Carpogenic germination of S. sclerotiorum sclerotia, measured as the number of sclerotia producing stipes and apothecia, was the predominant mode that was affected significantly by soil moisture and temperature. Myceliogenic germination in this species under the experimental conditions was infrequent. The optimum conditions for carpogenic germination were 15 degrees C and -0.03 or -0.07 MPa. To study the effect of sclerotial size on carpogenic germination in both S. minor and S. sclerotiorum, sclerotia of three distinct size classes for each species were placed in soil disks equilibrated at -0.03 MPa and incubated at 15 degrees C. After 6 weeks, number of stipes and apothecia produced by sclerotia were counted. Solitary S. minor sclerotia did not form apothecia, but aggregates of attached sclerotia readily formed apothecia. The number of stipes produced by both S. minor and S. sclerotiorum was highly correlated with sclerotial size. These results suggest there is a threshold of sclerotial size below which apothecia are not produced, and explains, in part, why production of apothecia in S. minor seldom occurs in nature.     

Effect of Inoculum Rates and Sources of Coniothyrium minitans on Control of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Disease in Glasshouse Lettuce

Coniothyrium minitans isolate Conio grew on both maizemeal-perlite and ground maizemeal-perlite, producing high numbers (1.6×10⁷ conidiag^–1 inoculum) of germinable conidia. Coniothyrium minitans isolate Conio applied as a preplanting soil incorporation of maizemeal-perlite inoculum at full application rate (0.6lm^–2; 10¹¹ colony forming units (cfu)m^–2) significantly reduced Sclerotinia disease in a sequence of three lettuce crops grown in a glasshouse. No reduction in disease was achieved with any of the reduced rate treatments (10⁸cfum^–2) of a range of C. minitans isolates (Conio ground maizemeal-perlite at reduced rate, Conio and IVT1 spore suspensions derived from maizemeal-perlite, IVT1 spore suspension derived from oats and Contans® WG spore suspension). After harvest of the second and third crops, C. minitans maizemeal-perlite at full rate reduced the number and viability of sclerotia recovered on the soil surface and increased infection by C. minitans compared with spore suspension and reduced rate maizemeal-perlite inocula. Coniothyrium minitans was recovered from the soil throughout the trial, between 10⁵ and 10⁷cfucm^–3 in maizemeal-perlite inoculum full rate treated plots and 10¹–10⁴cfu cm^–3 in all other inoculum treated plots.Pot bioassays were set up corresponding to the inoculum used in the glasshouse, with the addition of Conio ground maizemeal-perlite at a rate corresponding to the full rate maizemeal-perlite. Coniothyrium minitans maizemeal-perlite and ground maizemeal-perlite at full rate significantly decreased carpogenic germination, recovery and viability of sclerotia and increased infection of sclerotia by C. minitans in comparison with spore suspension treatments, reflecting results of the glasshouse trials. Additionally, reduced maizemeal-perlite treatment also decreased apothecial production, recovery and viability of sclerotia compared with the spore suspension treatment, despite being applied at similar rates. Simultaneous infection of sclerotia by several isolates of C. minitans was demonstrated. Inoculum level in terms of colony forming unitscm^–3 of soil appears to be a key factor in both control of Sclerotinia disease and in reducing apothecial production by sclerotia.     

The effect of temperature and water potential on the production of conidia by sclerotia of Botrytis squamosa

The rate of conidiogenic germination of Botrytis squamosa was highest at 16°C and the greatest numbers of conidia per sclerotium (up to 5 × 10⁴) were produced at temperatures of 5–10°C. At temperatures above 20°C, the percentage of sclerotia producing conidia declined rapidly. Decreasing water potential reduced the rate at which conidia were produced and also resulted in fewer conidia produced per sclerotium. However, conidia were produced at water potentials as low as −2 MPa, at which sclerotial germination was at least 60%. A simulation model that included effects of both temperature and water potential was developed from laboratory and field data obtained for conidial production in sclerotia exposed for periods of 1, 2, 3 or 4 weeks during an entire year. There was good agreement between conidiogenic germination predicted by the model and conidial production observed in onion plots artificially inoculated with sclerotia. Temperature and water potential were therefore considered to be the principal microclimatic factors affecting conidial production by B. squamosa. The role of sclerotia in the context of UK onion production is discussed.     

盾壳霉对核盘菌的拮抗作用研究

系统研究了菌核重寄生菌盾壳霉对核盘菌的拮抗作用,结果表明:盾壳霉可在核盘菌菌落上寄生,使核盘菌菌丝消解、原生质泄露,并抑制菌核的形成;而且盾壳霉提前6d接种,其分泌的抗生物质还可抑制核盘菌菌丝生长,并产生明显抑菌带。盾壳霉孢子液喷雾处理也证明:盾壳霉分生孢子即可在核盘菌子囊盘(柄)上萌发、寄生,使子囊盘(柄)萎缩枯死,而且还可以在核盘菌菌落上萌发、寄生,消解破坏菌丝体、抑制的菌核形成。     

Long-Term Biosanitation by Application of Coniothyrium minitans on Sclerotinia sclerotiorum-Infected Crops

ABSTRACT The effect of the fungal mycoparasite Coniothyrium minitans applied as a spray to crops infected with Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (causal agent of white mold) on contamination of soil with S. sclerotiorum sclerotia was studied in a 5-year field experiment. Sclerotial survival also was monitored during two subsequent years, when the field was returned to commercial agriculture. In a randomized block design, factorial combinations of four crops and three treatments were repeated 10 times. Potato (Solanum tuberosum), bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), carrot (Daucus carota), and chicory (Cichorium intybus), which are all susceptible to S. sclerotiorum, were grown in rotation. Plots were treated with C. minitans or Trichoderma spp. or were nontreated (control). Crops were rotated in each plot, but treatments were applied to the same plot every year. After 3 years during which it showed no effect on sclerotial survival, the Trichoderma spp. treatment was replaced by a single spray with C. minitans during the fourth and fifth years of the trial. The effect of treatments was monitored in subsequent seasons by counting apothecia as a measure of surviving S. sclerotiorum sclerotia and scoring disease incidence. Trichoderma spp. did not suppress S. sclerotiorum, but C. minitans infected at least 90% of S. sclerotiorum sclerotia on treated crops by the end of the each season. C. minitans lowered the number of apothecia compared with the other treatments during the second year after the bean crop. C. minitans reduced the number of apothecia by approximately 90% when compared with the control and Trichoderma spp. treatments and reduced disease incidence in the bean crop by 50% during the fifth year of the trial, resulting in a slightly higher yield. In 1993, but not 1994, a single spray with C. minitans was nearly as effective at reducing apothecia as three sprays (monitored in 1995). The final population size of sclerotia in soil at the end of the 7-year period was lower in all C. minitans plots than at the beginning of the trial, even in plots where two highly susceptible bean crops were grown during the period. The results indicate that the mycoparasite C. minitans has the potential to keep contamination of soil with sclerotia low in crop rotations with a high number of crops susceptible to S. sclerotiorum.     

Potential for Integrated Control of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in Glasshouse Lettuce Using Coniothyrium minitans and Reduced Fungicide Application

ABSTRACT All pesticides used in United Kingdom glasshouse lettuce production (six fungicides, four insecticides, and one herbicide) were evaluated for their effects on Coniothyrium minitans mycelial growth and spore germination in vitro agar plate tests. Only the fungicides had a significant effect with all three strains of C. minitans tested, being highly sensitive to iprodione (50% effective concentration [EC(50)] 7 to 18 mug a.i. ml(-1)), moderately sensitive to thiram (EC(50) 52 to 106 mug a.i. ml(-1)), but less sensitive to the remaining fungicides (EC(50) over 200 mug a.i. ml(-1)). Subsequently, all pesticides were assessed for their effect on the ability of C. minitans applied as a solid substrate inoculum to infect sclerotia of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in soil tray tests. Despite weekly applications of pesticides at twice their recommended concentrations, C. minitans survived in the soil and infected sclerotia equally in all pesticide-treated and untreated control soil trays. This demonstrated the importance of assessing pesticide compatibility in environmentally relevant tests. Based on these results, solid substrate inoculum of a standard and an iprodione-tolerant strain of C. minitans were applied individually to S. sclerotiorum-infested soil in a glasshouse before planting lettuce crops. The effect of a single spray application of iprodione on disease control in the C. minitans treatments was assessed. Disease caused by S. sclerotiorum was significantly reduced by C. minitans and was enhanced by a single application of iprodione, regardless of whether the biocontrol agent was iprodione-tolerant. In a second experiment, disease control achieved by a combination of C. minitans and a single application of iprodione was shown to be equivalent to that of prophylactic sprays with iprodione every 2 weeks. The fungicide did not affect the ability of C. minitans to spread into plots where only the fungicide was applied and to infect sclerotia. These results indicate that integrated control of S. sclerotiorum with soil applications of C. minitans and reduced foliar iprodione applications was feasible, did not require a fungicide tolerant isolate, and that suppression of Sclerotinia disease by C. minitans under existing chemical control regimes has credence.     

Glasshouse trials of Coniothyrium minitans and Trichoderma species for the biological control of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in celery and lettuce

Coniothyrium minitans, Trichoderma harzianum (HH3) and Trichoderma sp. (B1) were tested for ability to control disease caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in a sequence of a celery crop and two lettuce crops in the glasshouse. In control plots, over 80% of celery and 90 and 60% of lettuce in first and second crops, respectively, were infected at harvest. Only the C. minitaris treatment in the first lettuce crop decreased disease and increased marketable yield. Nevertheless, C. minitans reduced the number of sclerotia recovered at harvest in the celery and first lettuce crops and decreased sclerotial survival over the autumn fallow periods following the celery and second lettuce crop. C. minitans survived in soil for over 1 year and spread to infect sclerotia in virtually all other plots. C. minitans infected sclerotia at all times of the year but sclerotia still failed to degrade during the summer months when the soil was dry. The Trichoderma species tested had no effect on disease and almost no effect on the survival of the sclerotia. even though they could be recovered from soil for the duration of the experiments.     

Production,survival and evaluation of solid-substrate inocula ofConiothyrium minitans againstSclerotinia sclerotiorum

Coniothyrium minitans grew on all ten solid-substrates (barley, barley-rye-sunflower, bran-vermiculite, bran-sand, maizemed-perlite, millet, oats, peat-bran, rice and wheat) tested, producing high numbers of germinable pycnidiospores (1.9–9.3×10⁸ g^–1 air dry inocula). All solid substrate inocula survived better in the laboratory at 5 and 15 °C than at 30 °C for at least 64 weeks.In pot bioassays carried out in the glasshouse and field, soil incorporations of each inoculum almost completely inhibited carpogenic germination ofS. sclerotiorum. In the field bioassay, no sclerotia were recovered after 38 weeks fromC. minitans-treated pots compared to 56% from control pots. In the glasshouse bioassay, 9–30% of sclerotia were recovered after 20 weeks fromC. minitans-treated pots, but 88–100% of these were infected by the antagonist. The antagonist also spread to infect sclerotia in control pots.In larger scale glasshouse trials, single preplanting soil-incorporations of five inocula (barley-ryesunflower, maizemeal-perlite, peat-bran, rice and wheat) controlled Sclerotinia disease in a sequence of lettuce crops, with only small differences between the types of inocula tested. At harvest,C. minitans reduced sclerotial populations on the soil surface and over 74% of sclerotia recovered fromC. minitans-treated plots were infected by the antagonist.C. minitans survived in soil in all solid-substrate inocula-treated plots for at least 39 weeks at levels of 10⁴–10⁵ colony forming units cm^–3 soil and spread to infect over 36% of sclerotia recovered from control plots.     

Effects of soil temperature, moisture, and burial depths on carpogenic germination of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and S. minor

Extensive studies have been conducted on the carpogenic germination of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, but carpogenic germination in S. minor has not been studied adequately. It remains unclear why apothecia of this pathogen have seldom been observed in nature. In this study, a new method was developed to produce apothecia in the absence of soil or sand, and carpogenic germination without preconditioning was recorded for 95 of the 96 S. sclerotiorum isolates tested. Carpogenic germination of the two species was compared under a variety of temperature, soil moisture, burial depths, and short periods of high temperature and low soil moisture. The optimal temperatures for rapid germination and for maximum germination rates were both lower for S. minor than for S. sclerotiorum. The temperature range for carpogenic germination was also narrower for S. minor than for S. sclerotiorum. A 5-day period at 30 degrees C, either starting on the 10th or 20th day of incubation, did not significantly affect carpogenic germination of S. sclerotiorum. For both S. minor and S. sclerotiorum, the percentage of carpogenically germinated sclerotia increased as soil water potential increased from -0.3 to -0.01 MPa. In the greenhouse, a 10- or 20-day dry period completely arrested carpogenic germination of S. sclerotiorum, and new apothecia appeared after an interval of 35 days following rewetting, similar to the initial carpogenic germination regardless of when the dry period was imposed. In naturally infested fields, the number of sclerotia in 100 cc of soil decreased as depth increased from 0 to 10 cm before tillage, but became uniform between 0 and 10 cm after conventional tillage for both species. Most apothecia of S. minor were, however, produced from sclerotia located at a depth shallower than 0.5 cm while some apothecia of S. sclerotiorum were produced from sclerotia located as deep as 4 to 5 cm. These results provide the much needed information to assess the epidemiological roles of inoculum from sexual reproduction in diseases caused by the two Sclerotinia species in different geographical regions. However, more studies on effects of shorter and incompletely dry periods are still needed to predict production of apothecia of S. sclerotiorum in commercial fields under fluctuating soil temperature and moisture.     

Induction of myceliogenic germination of sclerotia of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum by exposure to sub-freezing temperatures

When sclerotia of a Canadian isolate of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum were exposed to temperatures of – 10 or– 20 C for 4 weeks, their germination behaviour changed from carpogenic to myceliogenic type. Mycelial growth from sclerotia exposed to– 20 C was more vigorous than that from sclerotia exposed to– 10 C. The mode of germination in sclerotia treated with above-freezing temperatures of 0 5, 10. 15. 25 or 30 C did not change: they retained the capacity for carpogenic germination. The possible epidemiological impact of this low-temperature induction of myceliogenic germination on the development of sclerotinia wilt of sunflower seedlings in western Canada is discussed.     

Forecasting sclerotinia disease on lettuce: toward developing a prediction model for carpogenic germination of sclerotia

ABSTRACT The feasibility of developing a forecasting system for carpogenic germination of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum sclerotia was investigated in the laboratory by determining key relationships among temperature, soil water potential, and carpogenic germination for sclerotia of two S. sclerotiorum isolates. Germination of multiple burials of sclerotia to produce apothecia also was assessed in the field with concurrent recording of environmental data to examine patterns of germination under different fluctuating conditions. Carpogenic germination of sclerotia occurred between 5 and 25 degrees C but only for soil water potentials of >/=-100 kPa for both S. sclerotiorum isolates. Little or no germination occurred at 26 or 29 degrees C. At optimum temperatures of 15 to 20 degrees C, sclerotia buried in soil and placed in illuminated growth cabinets produced stipes after 20 to 27 days and apothecia after 27 to 34 days. Temperature, therefore, had a significant effect on both the rate of germination of sclerotia and the final number germinated. Rate of germination was correlated positively with temperature and final number of sclerotia germinated was related to temperature according to a probit model. Thermal time analysis of field data with constraints for temperature and water potential showed that the mean degree days to 10% germination of sclerotia in 2000 and 2001 was 285 and 279, respecttively, and generally was a good predictor of the observed appearance of apothecia. Neither thermal time nor relationships established in the laboratory could account for a decline in final percentage of germination for sclerotia buried from mid-May compared with earlier burials. Exposure to high temperatures may explain this effect. This, and other factors, require investigation before relationships derived in the laboratory or thermal time can be incorporated into a forecasting system for carpogenic germination.     

Antagonistic activity of fungi isolated from sclerotia of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

Fungi isolated from soils in central Italy by a baiting technique with sclerotia of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum were evaluated for their antagonism in vitro to this fungus using dual cultures and tests with sclerotia. Trichoderma spp., Coniothyrium minitans and species of Fusarium and Penicillium all showed strong antagonistic activity. Morphological alterations were observed in the mycelium of S. sclerotiorum. Trichoderma spp. and Gliocladium catenulatum killed a very high percentage (96–100%) of the sclerotia.     

山东省不同地区蔬菜菌核病菌对四霉素的敏感性

采用菌丝生长速率法测定了四霉素对采自山东省不同地区不同蔬菜作物的151株菌核病菌的毒力作用,同时比较了其对蔬菜菌核病菌不同生育阶段的抑制活性,并通过离体叶片法评价了四霉素对蔬菜菌核病的防治效果。结果表明:菌核病菌对四霉素比较敏感,敏感性频率呈单峰正态分布,151株病菌菌丝生长的平均EC₅₀值为 (0.29 ± 0.01) μg/mL,该值可作为蔬菜菌核病菌对四霉素的敏感基线。此外,经四霉素处理后,该病菌的菌核数量以及干重明显降低,菌核明显变小;2 μg/mL的处理对菌核萌发的抑制率达到100.00%。 离体黄瓜叶片接种试验表明,四霉素对菌核病具有较好的保护和治疗效果,且保护作用较为显著。在质量浓度为20 μg/mL时,四霉素对该病的防效显著高于对照药剂多菌灵和异菌脲。因此,四霉素具有防治蔬菜菌核病的潜在价值,可进一步通过田间试验验证其应用效果。     

Forecasting Sclerotinia Disease on Lettuce: A Predictive Model for Carpogenic Germination of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Sclerotia

ABSTRACT A predictive model for production of apothecia by carpogenic germination of sclerotia is presented for Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. The model is based on the assumption that a conditioning phase must be completed before a subsequent germination phase can occur. Experiments involving transfer of sclerotia from one temperature regime to another allowed temperature-dependent rates to be derived for conditioning and germination for two S. sclerotiorum isolates. Although the response of each isolate to temperature was slightly different, sclerotia were fully conditioned after 2 to 6 days at 5 degrees C in soil but took up to 80 days at 15 degrees C. Subsequent germination took more than 200 days at 5 degrees C and 33 to 52 days at 20 degrees C. Upper temperature thresholds for conditioning and germination were 20 and 25 degrees C, respectively. A predictive model for production of apothecia derived from these data was successful in simulating the germination of multiple burials of sclerotia in the field when a soil water potential threshold of between -4.0 and -12.25 kilopascals (kPa) was imposed. The use of a germination model as part of a disease forecasting system for Sclerotinia disease in lettuce is discussed.     

Production of conidia by Peronosclerospora sorghi on sorghum crops in Zimbabwe

Factors affecting the production of conidia of Peronosclerospora sorghi , causing sorghum downy mildew (SDM), were investigated during 1993 and 1994 in Zimbabwe. In the field conidia were detected on nights when the minimum temperature was in the range 10–19°C. On 73% of nights when conidia were detected rain had fallen within the previous 72 h and on 64% of nights wind speed was < 2.0 m s⁻¹. The time period over which conidia were detected was 2–9 h. Using incubated leaf material, conidia were produced in the temperature range 10–26°C. Local lesions and systemically infected leaf material produced 2.4–5.7 × 10³ conidia per cm². Under controlled conditions conidia were released from conidiophores for 2.5 h after maturation and were shown to be well adapted to wind dispersal, having a settling velocity of 1.5 × 10⁻⁴ m s⁻¹. Conditions that are suitable for conidia production occur in Zimbabwe and other semi-arid regions of southern Africa during the cropping season.     

盾壳霉控制油菜菌核病菌再侵染及其叶面存活动态的研究

 本文评估了施于油菜(Brassica napus)叶片上的盾壳霉(Coniothyrium minitans)控制油菜菌核病菌再侵染能力,探讨了其作用机理,并测定了盾壳霉分生孢子在油菜叶面上的存活动态。结果如下:叶面上的盾壳霉对油菜菌核病菌的初侵染影响较小,但在高剂量(> 10⁶孢子/ml)时可以控制病斑的扩展。所有供试剂量的盾壳霉均可不同程度地控制再侵染。盾壳霉分生孢子可在叶面病部迅速萌发,48 h和72 h时孢子萌发率分别为51%和95%,而在健康叶面上6 d未能检测到萌发的孢子。自携带盾壳霉的叶面病部不能分离到核盘菌,表明叶面上的盾壳霉已寄生并破坏了核盘菌再侵染菌丝。自油菜叶面上分离到的盾壳霉菌落数随时间延长而降低,但其分生孢子至少可以在叶面上存活28 d。这即表明,在叶面上适时适量地添加盾壳霉可以控制油菜菌核病的为害。