电阻断层成像、应力波及阻抗仪3种无损检测方法对活立木腐朽程度的定量检测

【目的】应用电阻断层成像法、应力波断层成像法和阻抗仪法对活立木树干腐朽程度进行检测和定量表征,判断3种方法的可靠性,为野外立木健康情况检测提供基础数据和理论依据。【方法】在黑龙江省哈尔滨市东北林业大学试验林场内,选取水曲柳和北京杨各25株(15株腐朽,10株健康)共50株100个截面,采用PICUS Tree Tronic型树木电阻断层成像仪、Arbotom应力波断层成像系统和Resistograph针式阻抗仪检测及木芯质量损失率估测4种方法对断面腐朽程度进行检测和定量表征。以木芯质量损失率计算的样木腐朽程度(E_s)为真值,利用最小二乘法分别建立电阻测定的腐朽程度(E_d)、应力波测定的腐朽程度(E_y)及阻抗仪测定的腐朽程度(E_z)与真值(E_s)之间的线性关系。【结果】电阻断层成像、应力波和阻抗仪3种无损检测方法能在不同腐朽程度上表征活立木木材质量损失率;从整体上来看,电阻检测和应力波检测结果与腐朽程度真值的拟合程度低于阻抗仪检测结果与腐朽程度真值的拟合程度;从不同腐朽阶段来看,在E_s30%时,E_d和E_s的相关系数最高(R=0.823,P0.01);在30%≤E_s50%时,E_y和E_s的相关系数最高(R=0.658,P0.01);在E_s≥50%时,E_z和E_s的相关系数最高(R=0.914,P0.01)。【结论】电阻断层成像法对木材早期腐朽的检测比较敏感,而应力波断层成像法则相对在木材腐朽稍严重时更准确,阻抗仪法在腐朽各个阶段的检测结果都较为准确,且在腐朽严重时最准确,但会对木材造成微损伤。3种无损检测方法均能有效检测活立木腐朽,并有各自的特点,在实际腐朽检测中应根据实际检测需要来选择。     

应力波和超声波在立木无缺陷断面的传播速度

为进行立木无损健康检测,采用Arbotom应力波成像系统、Resistograph针式阻抗仪和RSM-SY5超声仪对4个树种共计120株树分断面进行测试,研究超声波和应力波在立木108个无缺陷断面传播速度变化规律,并对比分析二者的差异和相关性。结果表明:1)采用8个测点对立木测试时,超声波和应力波在立木无缺陷断面具有类似的传播规律,即沿Path A(相邻两传感器)传播时速度最低,沿Path D(径向传播)传播时速度最高,从Path A到Path D传播速度呈递增的变化趋势;2)对于小叶杨、榆树、旱柳、水曲柳4种立木,Arbotom测得的无缺陷断面应力波径向传播速度平均值分别为788.46,1 025.45,940.62和1 146.06 m.s-1;RSM-SY5测得的超声波径向传播速度平均值分别为1 159.57,1 537.5,1 323.15和1 558.6 m.s-1;3)尽管Arbotom和RSM-SY5测得的应力波和超声波传播速度差值较大,但二者的径向传播速度具有显著正相关性,决定系数R2均在0.77以上,因此采用这2种仪器对立木进行无损检测都是可行的。     

基于射线分割的林木应力波断层成像算法

【目的】提出一种基于射线分割的林木应力波断层成像算法,研究应力波在林木横截面上的信号分布情况,提高应力波断层成像精度,准确反映林木内部缺陷的位置、大小和腐朽程度。【方法】选取4株原木样本(松树、乌桕)和4株活树样本(香樟、圆柏、柳树)进行应力波断层成像试验,利用FAKOPP应力波检测仪采集样本横截面应力波数据。首先校正采集的应力波速度,绘制应力波传播射线图,对成像区域进行网格划分;然后分割每一条应力波传播射线,基于已知射线传播速度估算待分割射线上多条线段的速度,增加应力波信号量,得到改进的应力波传播射线图;最后根据改进的应力波传播射线图估算成像区域内网格单元的速度,结合图像处理方法,生成断层图像。为验证算法的可行性,使用Resistograph微钻阻力仪评估活树内部健康状况。【结果】基于射线分割的林木应力波断层成像算法能够较准确地重建4株原木样本的断层图像。使用Resistograph微钻阻力仪对活树进行多路径钻探,与阻力曲线图相比发现,基于射线分割的林木应力波断层成像算法生成的断层成像具有较高精度。【结论】基于射线分割的林木应力波断层成像算法可提高初始网格单元速度的准确性和相关性,能够实现林木内部缺陷的高精度成像,适用于林木无损检测。     

应力波在旱柳立木内的传播规律分析及其安全评价

应用应力波对东北林业大学校园内的40株旱柳进行检测,获取样本树120个横断面的二维应力波图像及波速矩阵.依据图像,把立木横断面腐朽状况分为尤腐朽、心腐、边腐、心腐边腐共存断面等4类.进一步分析表明:应力波在健康立木横断面内径向传播速度最快,并且波从某一传感器到其余传感器(按顺时针计)的速度变化是先增后减的趋势;立木腐朽会导致应力波传播速度降低,应力波在心腐立木横断面内传播趋势不是先增后减,而变成非常平坦的曲线.因此,可以利用应力波波速的变化来对立木内部腐朽进行估计.另外,根据应力波检测成像结果可以识别腐朽面积及位置,并能够依据断面t/R值对旱柳行道树的安全性进行初步评价.     

含水率对原木孔洞缺陷应力波检测效果的影响

应用微单元分析模型,在实验室条件下研究含水率对原禾内部孔洞缺陷检测效果的影响。在不同含水率状态下测试原木内应力波传播速度,分析应力波传播速度与含水率的相关性,得出原木孔洞缺陷识别质量系数。结果表明,在较低的含水率状态下原木孔洞缺滔检测效果较好。     

东北林区典型树种内部心腐材积的量化检测

为分析活立木心腐材积损失变化规律及材积与胸径的关系,利用Arbotom应力波测试仪对带岭凉水国家自然保护区内红松(Pinus koraiensis)、旱柳(Salix matsudana)、山杨(Populus davidiana)、水曲柳(Fraxinus mand-schurica Rupr.)等4种活立木不同高度处144个断面的腐朽状况进行检测,获取每个断面的树干直径和应力波断层图像。根据应力波断层成像,筛选出存在心腐的断面共78个,利用Envi 5.0最大似然法对心腐断面进行分类并计算断面腐朽面积,据此模拟出活立木内部腐朽的立体模型,然后通过分区段求材积法估算其腐朽材积。在此基础上,对活立木心腐材积变化规律及材积与胸径的关系进行统计分析。结果表明:活立木心腐面积随高度的增加呈递减趋势;活立木心腐材积与胸径之间存在显著的正相关性(R=0.618,P=0.0000.01),胸径越大,活立木心腐材积比例也增大。     

基于应力波与X射线二维CT图像原木内部腐朽无损检测

木材无损检测技术是在20世纪60年代后逐步兴起的对木材性质进行非破坏性检测的技术,如今该技术已多达几十种,产生了多种多样的木材无损检测方法。为了更好地运用这些方法,找出它们的优缺点,有必要对它们检测木材内部缺陷进行试验和评价。同时使用应力波和X射线两种方法对原木内部腐朽进行检测,结果表明：应力波和X射线二维CT图像都能检测出原木内部腐朽,显示出腐朽的区域,而且能利用图像计算出腐朽区域的面积。两种方法计算出的腐朽区域的面积准确度φ都较高,但是应力波二维CT图像在其他许多方面逊于X射线二维CT图像：应力波二维CT图像对腐朽区域形状的显示不够准确,不能根据图像辨别出腐朽的严重程度,利用图像确定腐朽面积效率很低;X射线二维CT图像对腐朽区域形状的显示与实际较吻合,可以根据图像辨别出腐朽的严重程度,利用图像确定腐朽面积效率高。但是X射线仪器笨重不便携,而应力波检测仪轻快便携。     

原木内部腐朽应力波二维图像的获取与分析

应用Arbotom应力波检测系统,对东北林区3个针叶树种(云杉、冷杉、落叶松)和9个阔叶树种(白桦、色木、椴木、杨木、水曲柳、核桃楸、榆木、铁木和柞木)的原木内部腐朽进行检测,并对原木内部腐朽面积的实际估算值和检测估算值进行比较分析.结果表明:Arbotom应力波无损检测系统可以获取原木内部腐朽的二维图像,但检测准确率较低,建议采用多点测量和改进应力波测试仪器,以提高检测准确率.     

樟子松活立木与原木及其板材应力波传播速度的相关性研究

对樟子松活立木、原木及其板材的应力波传播速度进行检测,得出活立木与原木的应力波传播速度非常接近;樟子松原木段与其板材的应力波传播速度具有较大的相关性,相关系数为R2=0.6,因此可以通过活立木的应力波传播速度来预测原木制成板材后的应力波传播速度。     

古建筑木材中应力波传播速度的影响因素

对应力波在古建筑木材中传播速度的影响因素及其影响规律进行了检测和分析,目的是找出各种因素变化与应力波扫描图像之间的关系,从而更好地判定木材内部缺陷的位置和面积。研究表明:含水率对应力波传播速度影响显著;在相同含水率下,应力波径向传播速度大于弦向,其传播方向偏离髓心越远,传播速度越小;树种和年代对应力波传播速度也有影响。     

Browsing Damage on Pine (Pinus sylvestris and P. contorta) by a migrating moose (Alces alces) Population in Winter: Relation to Habitat Composition and Road Barriers

In Scandinavia, moose (Alces alces L.) sometimes cause severe browsing damage to economically-important pine. Moose-vehicle accidents have spurred construction of fences along roads, and these may interfere with moose migration between summer and winter ranges, or the road alone may be a barrier. If this happens and moose build up along roads, landowners may suffer economically. Therefore, this study investigated whether roads, fences or other factors influence the use of young pine stands by moose. Eighty stands along roads in northern Sweden were evaluated in which individually-browsed branches were counted on 9972 pines. Moose browsing was not significantly related to birch (Betula pendula Roth, B. pubescens Ehrh.) density, nor did it differ between pines (Pinus contorta Douglas or P. sylvestris L.). However, increased pine density, site productivity and proximity to a highway were associated with increased browsing. Further large-scale studies are needed to understand moose habitat selection and the effects of roads.     

Effects of Root Freezing on the Physiology and Growth of Picea glauca,Picea mariana and Pinus banksiana Seedlings Under Different Soil Moisture Regimes

The root systems of 2-yr-old Picea glauca, Picea mariana and Pinus banksiana seedlings were submitted to various frost temperatures during an artificial frost to induce different levels of root damage. Frost-damaged and control seedlings were placed in a greenhouse under high and low soil moisture regimes. Seedling growth and physiology were evaluated periodically. Seedling survival was reduced when root damage reached levels of 60-80%. Root systems of all three species showed partial to total recovery by the end of the experiment. In general, root freezing damage caused reductions in seedling growth, with these reductions becoming less significant over time. Root damage had little to no effect on black spruce and jack pine seedling physiology, while white spruce CO 2 uptake decreased with increasing root damage. Shoot nitrogen content of all three species decreased slightly with increasing root damage.     

Decomposition and nutrient loss from prunings of different contour hedgerow species in tea plantations in the sloping highlands of Sri Lanka

Contour hedgerows of multipurpose tree species in the sloping tea lands of Sri Lanka are expected to reduce soil erosion and also add significant amounts of plant nutrients to the soil via periodic prunings. The objective of this experiment was to characterize the biomass decomposition pattern and quantify the amount of nutrients added through prunings of six tree species (Calliandra calothyrsus, Senna spectabilis, Euphatorium innulifolium, Flemingia congesta, Gliricidia sepium and Tithonia diversifolia) currently being used in hedgerows associated with tea. Withered leaf and stem prunings (50 g) were enclosed in 2-mm litter bags, placed at 5-cm depth and retrieved after one, three, six, nine and 12 weeks. Loss of initial dry weight, N, P and K was measured. Single exponential decay function adequately described both dry weight and nutrient loss. Tree species differed significantly in their rate of breakdown with decomposition constants (k) varying from 0.0299 to 0.2006 week⁻¹ for leaves and from 0.0225 to 0.0633 week⁻¹ for stems. Gliricidia showed the highest k for leaves with the rest in the following descending order: Senna > Tithonia ≥ Euphatorium > Calliandra > Flemingia. A similar pattern was observed for loss of all nutrients with Calliandra and Flemingia always having lower k values than the rest. Although N immobilization was not observed, immobilization of P and K was observed during the first week of incubation in some species, particularly in stem prunings. Annual biomass of prunings differed significantly between tree species in the following descending order: Calliandra > Senna > Flemingia > Tithonia > Gliricidia > Euphatorium. Calliandra added the greatest amount of nutrients annually to the soil with Euphatorium adding the least. Calliandra prunings provided the annual total K requirement and 49% of the N requirement of mature tea. However, none of the species provided more than 5% of the P requirement. It is concluded that among the tree species tested, Calliandra and Flemingia are the most suitable for contour hedgerows in tea plantations of this agroclimatic region because of their higher soil nutrient enrichment capacity and slower decomposition rates which would minimize leaching losses. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Effects of Seed Weight and Seed Type on Early Seedling Growth of Pinus sylvestris under Harsh and Optimal Conditions

The effects of seed weight and seed type on seedling growth of Pinus sylvestris (L.) were studied by seeding individually weighed orchard and stand seed in different mixtures under harsh (direct seeding in field) and optimal (seeding in nursery) conditions. In the nursery experiment an increase in the seed weight from 3 to 7 mg increased the seedling height by 10-27% and total weight by 27-113%, and decreased the height/diameter ratio by 5-6% after 2 yrs. With elimination of seed weight effects, orchard seedlings were 2% taller than stand seedlings in year 2. Without elimination of seed weight effects, orchard seedlings were 7-13% taller. In the field experiment an increase in the seed weight from 3 to 7 mg increased seedling height by 18-65%, stem volume by 81-274% and the number of top-buds by 23-34% in year 5. After elimination of seed weight effects, orchard seedlings were 7-13% taller than stand seedlings and without elimination of seed weight effects 20-21% taller after 5 yrs. Even after elimination of both seed weight and genetic effects orchard seedlings were 3-9% larger than stand seedlings in the field experiment. In conclusion, the influence of seed weight and seed type on growth traits and slenderness is highly significant and the influence seems to be greater in harsh conditions.     

Modelling of adequate pretwist for obtaining straight timber

Abstract

Wood in general and wooden studs in particular are often distorted owing to uneven shrinkage during the drying process in the sawmill. Twist is often the most detrimental of all types of distortion, and it is caused by spiral grain in combination with variations in moisture content. For sawmills, the objective is to produce dried, straight boards, and one method of dealing with boards with excessive spiral grain is to sort them out and then dry them in a pretwisted position to obtain straight boards after drying. A model using the finite element (FE) method for the simulation of drying twist distortions was first calibrated against laboratory experiments in which boards were dried with and without restraints and pretwists. After the calibration, the FE results were compared with industrial test results for boards that were dried without restraints or with restraints with zero pretwist, i.e. straight restraints. The FE model used an elastic–ideally plastic material model to obtain permanent deformations. The calibration was to set the yield stresses so that there was a good match between FE results and results from the laboratory experiments. The comparison between the industrial test results and the FE results showed that the FE model is capable of realistic simulations of drying boards with and without restraints and presumably also pretwists.     

Potential to harness superior nutritional qualities of exotic baobabs if local adaptation can be conferred through grafting

Baobab leaves form an important part of the local diet in Sahel countries and elsewhere in Africa. Existing leaf nutritional data and agroforestry performance information are based solely on Adansonia digitata L., the baobab of continental Africa. The introduction potential of Adansonia species from the center of diversity in Madagascar and from Australia remains untapped. To assess this potential, the mineral contents and B₁ and B₂ vitamin levels of dried baobab leaves were determined for five-year old trees of A. digitata, A. gibbosa (A. Cunn.) Guymer ex D. Baum, A. rubrostipa Jum. & H. Perrier (syn. A. fony Baill.), A. perrieri Capuron and A. za Baill. grown in an introduction trial in Mali. Nutritional data were evaluated against survival and vigor to identify promising germplasm. Leaf vitamin and crude protein contents were highest in the Madagascar species, especially A. rubrostipa (B₁ 88 mg 100 g⁻¹, B₂ 187 mg 100 g⁻¹, protein 20.7% dry weight). However, the local species far outperformed the introductions in survival, tree height, basal diameter and resistance to termites. We suggest grafting as a way of harnessing the vigor of well-adapted local baobab varieties to the superior nutritional profiles of A. rubrostipa and others. Cross-species grafting tests in Adansonia were successful, thus creating new agroforestry possibilities with different scion/rootstock combinations.     

Growth of Phlebiopsis gigantea in wood of seven conifer species

Heterobasidion parviporum and Heterobasidion annosum are widely distributed root‐rot fungi that infect conifers throughout Europe. Infection of conifer stumps by spores of these pathogens can be controlled by treating fresh stumps with a competing non‐pathogenic fungus, Phlebiopsis gigantea. In this study, growth of three Latvian strains of P. gigantea and the biological control agent ‘Rotstop’ strain was evaluated in stem pieces of Norway spruce, Scots pine, lodgepole pine, Douglas‐fir, Weymouth pine, Siberian larch and Sitka spruce. The growth rates of one H. parviporum and one H. annosum isolate were also measured in the same stem pieces. The growth rate of P. gigantea varied greatly in wood of different conifer species. It was higher in the three pine species, lower in Norway spruce and lowest in Sitka spruce and Siberian larch, and in Douglas‐fir, this fungus did not grow. The largest area of wood occupied by P. gigantea was in lodgepole pine. Growth of Latvian isolates of P. gigantea in the wood of Pinus and Picea species was comparable to that of the Rotstop isolate. Consequently, stump treatment with local P. gigantea isolates should be recommended. However, our results suggest that Douglas‐fir stump treatment against Heterobasidion by P. gigantea may be ineffective and other stump treatment methods should be considered.     

Stand Structure in Pine,Spruce and Deciduous Forests: A Comparison Between Finnish and Russian Karelia

This study investigated the stand structure in pine, spruce and deciduous forests in the border district of Finland and Russia. A total of 46 mature forest stands was selected as pairs, the members of each pair being as similar as possible with respect to their forest site type, age, moisture and topography. The stands were then compared between the two countries by means of basal areas and number of stems. The proportions of dominating tree species were 2-12% lower, and correspondingly the proportions of secondary tree species higher, in Russian forests. The density of the forest stock was also higher in each forest type in Russia. The forests in the two countries differed most radically in terms of the abundance of dead trees. The amount was two to four times higher in Russian deciduous and spruce forests, and in pine forests the difference was 10-fold. The stand structures indicated that Russian coniferous stands, in particular, were more heterogeneous than intensively managed pine and spruce stands in Finland.     

Growth and Terminal Bud Formation in Picea abies Seedlings Grown with Alternating Diurnal Temperature and Different Light Qualities

The root collar diameter and the height:diameter ratio are of particular importance in container-grown seedlings where a high density in the containers may produce spindly seedlings. Temperature regimes and light quality are known to affect plant growth. The aim of this study was to identify responses in Picea abies (L.) Karst. seedlings grown with light providing different red:far-red ratios and under temperature regimes with alternating day (DT) and night temperature (NT) from negative (DT < NT) to positive (DT > NT) difference (DIF) between DT and NT. Experiments were conducted in controlled environment chambers and in a daylight phytotron. Only limited thermoperiodic responses appeared in P . abies seedlings with respect to seedling height and dry weight accumulation. The formation of terminal buds, however, was clearly delayed in seedlings grown at negative DIF. The results indicate a requirement for day extension light that is high in far-red, to prevent terminal bud formation under natural short-day conditions. An extended study should be conducted to clarify the minimum level of light intensity and the optimal light quality needed to prevent terminal bud formation under natural short-day conditions.     

CAD与建筑设计的关系

本文分析了CAD在设计中引起的正面和负面影响,并进行了系统的阐述,从而使设计者在应用中能够保持客观的态度。