旅游开发对若尔盖自然保护区土壤养分和物理性状的影响

对高原湿地若尔盖国家级自然保护区不同旅游开发强度下土壤养分和物理性状进行研究的结果表明：（1）不同旅游开发强度（强度等级）对若尔盖高原湿地花湖景区土壤养分含量（有机质、氮、磷、钾）有着较大差异。（2）不同旅游开发强度对土壤理化性质的影响表现为：随着放牧干扰强度的增加,样地土壤容重逐渐增大、孔隙度逐渐减小。干扰导致土壤持水量和含水量下降,重度和中度干扰下土壤持水量和含水量与无放牧干扰时相比均有显著下降（P〈0.05）。放牧压实造成土壤表层孔隙度下降,致使土壤初渗速率、稳渗速率下降,其中稳渗速率下降最为明显,轻度、中度和重度放牧干扰下土壤稳渗速率比未受放牧干扰时分别下降了49.81%,81.89%和92.34%。（3）旅游活动、过牧超载等人为干扰活动是引起生态退化的主要原因。气候寒冷造成土壤利用性能受限,植被生长缓慢且破坏后难于恢复,湿地中伴随着水的大量流失和进而引发的湿地功能的的丧失对若尔盖及附近地区乃至全球生态环境的形成与演变产生重大影响。应对若尔盖湿地自然生态环境进行保护。严禁挖沟排水和过度无序旅游,乃是保护土壤,稳定若尔盖湿地高原生态环境的重要措施。只有这样,保护土壤生态系统才有依托,才有物质基础。     

放牧干扰对草地土壤理化性质的影响

文章综述了放牧干扰对草地土壤物理性质(土壤含水量、土壤容重)和化学性质(pH、有机质、氮磷钾)的影响,由于草地土壤生态系统本身的复杂性和滞后性,使得许多学者在不同区域、不同放牧强度、不同放牧时间、不同牲畜类型等环境下得出的结论也大不相同。一般的规律是随着放牧强度的增强,牲畜的踩踏强度增大,使得土壤结构破坏,土壤总空隙减少,容重降低,土壤含水量下降,且表层土壤变化较明显。由于牲畜粪便的归还,使得土壤的化学性质发生了复杂变化,其中在不同放牧强度下,不同土层内土壤pH、有机质、氮磷钾均有升高、降低、无明显变化3种趋势,分析认为,不同放牧强度是导致上述现象的主要原因,应采取合理的放牧制度,有效抑制草原退化,从而保持草原生态系统的可持续发展。     

祁连山坡地草场水土流失回归模型的建立

通过对祁连山坡地草场过度、中度和轻度放牧类型产生水土流失的数据分析，运用回归分析及方差显著性检验对径流量和土壤流失量、降水强度对水土流失量的影响情况进行了分析，结果表明，过度放牧观测小区水土流失量（E）与径流量（F）、径流系数（C）及降水量（P）之间呈现E=68.4831 3.9532F-0.8586C-11.1243P的拟合关系（r=0.9091），中度放牧地呈现E=2.8184 0.8692F-0.3325C-0.6627P的拟合关系（r=0.9734），轻度放牧呈现E=-0.0019-0.0781F-0.0009C-0.0005P的拟合关系（r=0.8986）。同时指出当降水强度一定时，坡地草场由于放牧强度不同，其径流系数差异显著，过度放牧草地在雨季有较大降水量是流域内产生水土流失的主要来源。     

抚育间伐对林木生长的影响研究

指出了抚育间伐对林分生产力及其林分因子、林下植被的生物多样性、林下土壤等产生影响。对这些方面的影响进行了总结,并对杉木在不同强度间伐下的生长进行了实验。提出了合理地抚育间伐应该综合考虑各个方面的影响,以更好地促进林木的生长。     

林下凋落物对土壤种子萌发的作用机制

林下土壤种子库是森林植被的物种组成、种群延续和种群演替的物质基础。林下凋落物影响土壤种子库种子的萌发,幼苗的生长,进而影响到种群更新及森林群落的演替。凋落物对种子萌发的影响主要有三大作用机制,即物理作用机制化学作用机制、和生物作用机制。其中化学作用机制特别是化感作用对土壤种子库的影响尤其重要。本文将从这三个作用机制的层面,分析总结前人有关土壤种子库种子的萌发及其与林下凋落物、林下植被多样性的研究,论述土壤种子库研究面临的挑战,并对土壤种子库与生物多样性的研究进行了相关展望。     

南方岩溶区植被自然演替恢复研究综述

我国岩溶区绝大部分分布在南方。植被的自然演替恢复是岩溶区生态重建的主要方式。随着自然演替的进行,土壤环境特征、土壤养分特征及土壤种子库等产生相应的变化。而岩溶植被的顶极群落特征和群落演替特征,包括盖度、结构、物种多样性、生物量、分布格局、演替方向都有其自身的特殊性。     

大小兴安岭过渡区阔叶红松林次生演替阶段群落多样性指数与环境因子关系

为揭示阔叶红松林次生演替阶段群落多样性状况,研究生物多样性指数与环境因子的关系,为该区植被保护、植被恢复提供理论支持。运用物多样性指数、典范对应分析和次生演替的空间序列代替时间序列方法,以大小兴安岭过渡区阔叶红松林不同演替阶段群落为研究对象,设置33个网格样地数据,记录每个样地的物种多度、盖度、频度及土壤环境数据,测定12个环境指标。结果表明：1原始阔叶红松林群落经过顺行演替向逆行演替发展,演替趋势为：原始阔叶红松林→天然次生阔叶林→天然次生针叶林→次生裸地;2保存较好的原始阔叶红松林物种多样性指数最高,物种最丰富,其次是天然次生阔叶林,物种多样性指数最低的是次生裸地,群落结构简单。3物种多样性指数与纬度、土壤含水率、土壤全氮含量相关性最大。     

热带次生林经营研究文献分析

热带次生林面积巨大且在热带森林资源中的作用越来越重要,因而拥有巨大的经营潜力和生态功能。次生林演替过程中的主要研究成果如下：土壤贮存的种子对次生林的再生非常重要,光投射的强度增加和温度提高将刺激种子萌芽,而残余植被群落强烈影响次生林种子的散布,食种子动物影响次生林的成林;次生林群落植物种类数量一般随演替的进程而增加;随着演替的进程,次生林内阳生树种趋于衰亡,耐荫树种不断增加;次生林的树种数量能接近原生林水平的时间过程更随着林分种类、过去土地的利用强度和利用种类,以及环境条件的不同而异;在一定环境中,人工林树种通过人工林树种改变光、温度和土壤表层的湿度,能够促进发芽和种子生长,改善林地和林下植被的状况,从而加速次生林演替。大多数食草动物喜欢在次生林中取食,因为次生林中先锋树种很少或没有机械和化学保护,且林内许多树种产生大量可食用的果实;环境和火对次生林演替有一定影响;在早期的演替过程中,更多的生物量分配到资源需求旺盛的组织（如叶和细根）,在演替晚期阶段,更多的生物量则分配到结构组织中（如木质部和根端）。次生林在15至20年内能迅速积累生物量,然后积累逐渐减慢;次生林被砍伐或火烧后,森林土壤的结构被破坏,导致土壤有机质和氮减少。     

生态恢复的过程与途径

退化生态系统是指生态系统在自然或人为干扰下形成的偏离自然状态的系统。与一般的自然系统相比,退化的生态系统物种的种类组成、群落或系统结构改变,生物多样性减少,生物生产力降低,土壤和微环境恶化,生物间相互关系改变。美国生态恢复学会认为,生态恢复是帮助生态整体恢复,并对其进行管理的过程。恢复生态学则是研究如何修复由于人类活动引起的原生生态系统生物多样性和动态损害的一门科学。其内涵包括帮助恢复和管理原生生态系统完整性的过程。与自然条件下发生的次生演替不同,生态恢复强调人类的主动作用,它包括人类的需求观、生态学方…     

林火与病虫害的相互作用

火是森林生态系统演替过程中的一种自然干扰因子, 在促进森林发育、维持生物多样性特别是景观多样性方面起着积极的作用。森林中的多种干扰间有关联性, 火灾、虫害和病原体之间存在着复杂的相互作用。文中综述了火干扰与森林病虫害的相互影响。火灾会引起森林组成和景观的变化, 进而影响森林病虫的生存与发生条件。病虫害通过改变可燃物特性及其分布, 影响火烧频度和强度。这一研究领域的未来发展趋势是更注重火与病虫害之间的量化关系, 研究结果将为开展科学的林火管理提供理论依据, 实现森林经营的可持续。     

The effects of grazing management in montado fragmentation and heterogeneity

The Portuguese silvo-pastoral system montado is broadly classified as a High Nature Value (HNV) system since it corresponds to farmland hosting high biodiversity levels, and such biodiversity depends on specific land use practices. However, in recent decades a decline both in the total montado area and in the tree cover density within the montado has been observed, driven mainly by management changes. This decline may result in biodiversity loss. Grazing is a central aspect determining the long-term sustainability of the montado system and it has implications also on the montado structural diversity, particularly on connectivity and heterogeneity, which is crucial for the maintenance of montado HNV. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate how variations in montado structural diversity are correlated with grazing management and its implications on the value of the system for conservation. The empirical data derives from a case study composed of 41 montado farms in two municipalities of the Alentejo region. Data on grazing management, biophysical and spatial factors were collected and several metrics were calculated to assess montado fragmentation and heterogeneity. A multivariate analysis was performed using generalized additive models. Results show that different grazing patterns, depending on stocking density and grazing animal type, are correlated with variations in montado fragmentation and heterogeneity. Particularly, cattle’s grazing is shown to have adverse effects on the montado fragmentation, while sheep grazing is shown to have stronger impacts on the heterogeneity within the montado patches.     

Grazing land management and biodiversity in the Atlantic European heathlands: a review

Atlantic heaths are semi-natural habitats of high biodiversity interest which once covered large areas of the Atlantic Region. Nowadays these heathlands are dramatically reduced in many countries although they still cover wide areas in the north-west Iberian Peninsula, especially in the poorest and most socially marginal areas that are frequently affected by wildfires. We review the role of livestock grazing as a sustainable management strategy for heathlands in Europe. We have worked on a generalized conceptual framework for the management of a resource of nutritional and environmental value by drawing together evidence from studies of the livestock and the community ecology of grazed plants and the associated fauna. Key factors that influence grazing impact, such as type of livestock (animal species and breed) and their management are discussed. Goats thrive better than sheep, and horses than cattle, when heathland vegetation is the predominant resource available. Regardless of the type of livestock species managed, the low nutritive value of this vegetation hinders the maintenance of productive groups of suckler dams with offspring through the grazing season. The nutritional requirements of livestock can be met by adding improved pasture areas to heathlands. Under that strategy, sheep have the best productive performance and cattle the poorest. Management of mixed flocks with goats can lead to a more efficient use of vegetation, improve productivity and develop a patchier habitat which supports a richer associated fauna. Overall the results indicate that the sustainability of livestock grazing in these marginal lands will be achieved if they are managed effectively according to the available vegetation and their effects on the biodiversity.     

Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus dynamics in a loblolly pine-goat silvopasture system in the Southeast USA

Agroforestry presents an opportunity to increase land productivity and improve cash flow by combining income from crop or animal production and forestry on the same land. In addition, agroforestry offers numerous environmental benefits such as increased diversity of plants and animals, nutrient recycling, erosion control, and carbon (C) sequestration. We investigated the effect of grazing and forage enhancement on total soil C (TSC), soil nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) dynamics in a goat (Capra aegagrus hircus)??loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) silvopasture system on a Kipling silt loam soil (fine, smectitic, thermic, Typic Paleudalfs) at Epes, Alabama from 2006 to 2010. In 2007, the soil in the silvopasture plots was characterized by low pH, low TSC, and was deficient in N and P. Four years after tree thinning and after 3?years of grazing in June 2010, the silvopasture plots still depicted low soil pH (<6) and TSC levels less than 20?g?kg^?1. TSC content in all the silvopasture plots in June 2010 were generally similar to levels obtained after thinning and prior to grazing in May 2007. However, soil disturbance for liming, fertilizer incorporation, and forage planting increased soil N and P levels, but resulted in lower TSC in the enhanced forage plots compared to the other treatments. Grazing increased N and P levels during the study period. Our study suggests that in the long-term, grazing without additional soil management practices can improve soil fertility through nutrient recycling and C sequestration and thereby making the goat-loblolly silvopasture system both environmentally and economically sustainable.     

Lower forest–grassland ecotones and 20th Century livestock herbivory effects in northern Mongolia

We studied five lower forest–grassland ecotones in the Darhad Valley in northern Mongolia and investigated the effects of 20th Century grazing regimes and changes in grazing management on ecotone dynamics at a local scale. A total of 2968 Siberian larch (Larix sibirica) trees were cored and tree-age distribution was constructed to determine 20th Century tree establishment. Tree age and location within the ecotones were correlated and seedling density and their distribution were explored to describe forest–grassland ecotone shift. To examine livestock herbivory effects on ecotone shift, the number of new trees was analyzed with five different grazing regimes and changes in grazing practices during the last 80 years in the Darhad Valley.We documented some evidence of ecotone shift into the adjacent grassland. Rates and patterns of ecotone shift varied with different grazing regimes. Siberian larch tree establishment was greater at overall grazing intensities of low and high levels, which were dominated by sheep and cattle grazing. In contrast, larch establishment was lower at overall grazing intensities of low and medium levels, which were dominated by goat grazing. Twentieth Century changes in grazing practices also influenced Siberian larch regeneration. An abrupt decline in Darhad Valley larch establishment during the 20th Century coincided with locally increased grazing pressure. Furthermore, regional climate variability showed important interaction with local grazing regimes in affecting larch regeneration. A 20th Century pulse in larch establishment coincided with a time period of regionally known warmer temperatures and locally reduced grazing pressure. Our results suggest that overall grazing intensity, livestock species composition, and changes in grazing patterns are important in understanding grazing effects on Siberian larch tree encroachment.     

Ozone disrupts the communication between plants and insects in urban and suburban areas:an updated insight on plant volatiles

Plant-insect interactions are basic components of biodiversity conservation.To attain the international Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs),the interactions in urban and in suburban systems should be better understood to maintain the health of green infrastructure.The role of ground-level ozone(03) as an environmental stress disrupting interaction webs is presented.Ozone mixing ratios in suburbs are usually higher than in the center of cities and may reduce photosynthetic productivity at a relatively higher degree.Consequently,carbon-based defense capacities of plants may be suppressed by elevated O_3 more in the suburbs.However,contrary to this expectation,grazing damages by leaf beetles have been severe in some urban centers in comparison with the suburbs.To explain differences in grazing damages between urban areas and suburbs,the disruption of atmospheric communication signals by elevated O_3 via changes in plant-regulated biogenic volatile organic compounds and long-chain fatty acids are considered.The ecological roles of plant volatiles and the effects of O_3 from both a chemical and a biological perspective are presented.Ozone-disrupted plant volatiles should be considered to explain herbivory phenomena in urban and suburban systems.     

Cattle grazing and pine survival and growth in subterranean clover pasture

When combining pines and cattle on tame pasture, grazing is often delayed for several years until trees are large enough to resist injury. As an alternative approach to delayed or deferred grazing during the early years, this study in central Louisiana, USA, examined the effects of cattle grazing in subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.) pastures on slash (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) and loblolly pine (P. taeda L.) seeding survival and growth during the first 3 years of tree establishment. Pines were planted at about 1200 trees/ha in 3 rows on 0.4-ha subclover units with 1.3 m spacing within rows. Three grazing treatments included: (1) ungrazed pines, (2) limited grazing with a single-wire electric fence above the planted pines, and (3) grazed pines. Thirty Brahman crossbred cows with calves and a bull grazed the tame pasture on a controlled grazing, rotational basis from December through May each year, during the subterranean clover growing season. Pine trampling injury during the year was 8% on the grazed seedlings while essentially none occured under limited grazing. During the first 2 growing seasons, survival and height of the pines were significantly less on the grazed seedlings than on either the limited grazing or ungrazed seedlings. Pine heights from the limited grazing and ungrazed treatments were not different during the 3-year study; loblolly pine heights from the limited grazing treatment continued to be taller than the grazed treatment through the third year while the slash pine heights were similar for all treatments by the third year. Seedling mortality became more acute as severity of grazing injury increased; the greatest mortality occured when the terminal bud and needles were both browsed off.     

Effect of exclosure ages on woody plant structure,diversity and regeneration potential in the western Tigray region of Ethiopia

Exclosure is a method of rehabilitating degraded lands by protecting them from the interference of animals and from human encroachment, and is used to regenerate native vegetation as a way to reduce soil erosion, increase rain water infiltration and provide fodder and woody biomass in degraded grazing lands. Therefore, we studied woody plant structure, diversity and regeneration potentials in 5- and 10-year grazing exclosures in comparison with open grazed sites in a semi-arid environment. Data on species diversity, abundance, structure, basal area, frequency, density, and regeneration status were collected from 270 sample plots. Forty-one woody species representing 20 families were identified, with 18, 28 and 38 species found in open grazed areas, and in 5- and 10-year grazing exclosures, respectively. The 10-year grazing exclosures had a higher (P < 0.05) species richness and plant densities compared to the 5-year grazing exclosures and the open grazed areas. The population structure and regeneration status of woody species in both grazing exclosures showed an inverted J-shape, indicating a healthy regeneration status, whereas hampered regeneration was observed in open grazed areas. The establishment of grazing exclosures had positive effects in restoring woody plant diversity and improving vegetation structure and regeneration potentials of degraded grazing lands.     

Impact of human and environmental factors on land cover changes of an oak silvopastoral system

Silvopastoral systems integrate the complexity of forestry and forage-livestock management in an economically and ecologically sustainable way. However, these systems have undergone intensive pressure over the past decades caused by changes in land uses, as well as, in local socioeconomic priorities that suppressed traditional practices such as livestock grazing. These changes have caused land cover spatiotemporal diversifications whose effects were investigated in a traditional oak silvopastoral system at western Greece. In order to investigate the effect of human activities over the study area, the spatiotemporal land cover changes in conjunction with human and animal population changes and the environmental factors altitude, soil depth, inclination and rock type were analyzed. Also, forest-crown density changes were examined as a complimentary factor for the investigation of human intervention in the study area. Data about land-cover changes were derived from aerial orthorectified photographs of years 1945 and 2008, complimented by maps of environmental factors. Data digitization was implemented by the use of ArcGis. Based on the data analysis it derives that land cover changes are mainly attributed to direct human intervention. Environmental factors affect the ecosystem in two ways; first by affecting the location, type and intensity of human activities in the area, for example, soil depth determines where land is more productive and so predetermines the location, type and intensity of agricultural activities. Secondly, in the areas without or with minimal human intervention, environmental factors affect directly the land cover in conjunction with natural species necessities and their antagonistic capabilities.

     

Tree Regeneration and Sapling Damage of Pedunculate Oak Quercus robur in a Grazed Forest in Galicia, NW Spain: A Comparison of Continuous and Rotational Grazing Systems

Forest grazing has been recognised as being a useful tool in fire-risk reduction, in addition to having the potential to preserve or enhance forest biodiversity if managed correctly. Concern for natural regeneration of forest trees in Europe has also prompted interest in the effects of large herbivores on seedling and sapling growth and mortality. An investigation was carried out into sapling damage and density of natural regeneration of oak (Quercus robur) in a mature, pony-grazed, Pinus radiata forest in Galicia, NW Spain under two different grazing regimes (continuous and rotational). In all treatments significantly more oak seedlings and saplings were recorded in areas of grass sward than areas dominated by taller ground flora species. Damage to oak saplings was assessed from the form (height and canopy) relative to stem diameter. The height and average canopy diameter of similar-aged saplings were found to be significantly greater in ungrazed (control) than both continuous and rotationally grazed treatments. Height and canopy diameters of similar-aged oak were not significantly different between the two grazing treatments. Significant differences were observed in tree form, with unbrowsed saplings having the greatest height to canopy width ratio and those in the continuously browsed plots having the smallest. An obvious decrease in the goodness of fit (R²) of regression analyses were found in continuously grazed areas compared to rotational and control plots for both height and canopy data. The differences in damage observed were not significantly different enough to suggest one method of grazing over the other as being better for minimising sapling damage. Management requirements are more likely to dictate grazing regime. Overall, stock density is likely to have a more significant effect on damage than stocking system.     

The Impact of Large Herbivores on the Conservation of Semi-natural Woods in the British Uplands

This review considers the history of woodland grazing and thegrazing ecology of large herbivores in the context of the conservationof semi-natural woods in the British uplands. The impact thatgrazing has on natural regeneration is frequently highlightedbut its effects on other vegetation, particularly the balancebetween bryophytes and higher plants are equally important.Grazing also influences both invertebrate and vertebrate populationsthrough its effect on vegetation structure. A low level of grazingby large herbivores in woodland provides a greater diversityin vegetation structure and species composition than eitherthe current prevalence of overgrazing or the absence of grazingin fenced woods. Low levels of grazing may also create conditionsfor the highest diversity of both plants and animals. The practicalproblems of managing woodland grazing are addressed in relationto conservation objectives for upland woods. Rotational grazing,seasonal grazing and reducing the overall levels of grazingin a wood are identified as possible management options. Furtherwork on these is however needed and topics for future researchare identified.