Needs of private forest owners in the context of changing political systems: Lithuania as a case study

During the first half of the 20^th century the Baltic States were independent democratic nations where private forest ownership was practiced. After annexation to the Soviet Union, individuals in the Baltic States lost their ownership rights and collective ownership was introduced. Currently, after the break-up of the Soviet Union, the land restitution process in the forest sector is coming to an end and the ownership pattern as well as tenure rights are settled. A survey was undertaken to investigate the current state of the private forest sector in general, and the needs and expectations of private forest owners (PFO). Results of the study indicated that for private forest owners their forests first of all provide aesthetic and environmental protection values. Lithuanian PFOs lack information of forests and forest management, face extensive bureaucracy and need help in protecting their forests from fires, diseases and timber thieves.     

Community Forest Enterprise Markets in Mexico and Brazil: New Opportunities and Challenges for Legal Access to the Forest

ABSTRACT

A significant shift has taken place in global forest tenure, with a doubling of the forest area under community ownership (or administration over the past 15 years). There is every indication that communal tenure will double again over the next 15 years. Recognition of traditional and indigenous peoples' collective rights over forest lands has important implications for forest-rich countries—both developed and developing. Combined with dramatic changes in the structure of the forest industry and globalizing markets, this shift creates new opportunities and challenges for low-income forest producers and community enterprises to leave poverty and diversify livelihoods. The challenge for policy makers and governments is to reform outdated regulatory and incentive frameworks to support these enterprises. This article presents findings on three types of responses from communities to the new opportunities created by the tenure shift and looks specifically at community timber enterprise cases from Mexico and Brazil; recommending actions by communities, policy makers, and private sector. Changes in international and domestic forest product demand, consolidation of commodity wood sectors, new corporate responsibility commitments, and the emergence of ecosystem service markets all affect community markets. One response has been the emergence of socially-integrated, timber and non-timber based enterprises. Another has been the expansion of self-financed community conservation. A third response has been new models of collaboration between companies and communities.     

Optimal rotation age for carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation in Vietnam

Biodiversity loss is a major problem in terms of loss of genetic and ecosystem services and more specifically via impacts on the livelihoods, food security and health of the poor. This study modeled forest management strategies that balance economic gains and biodiversity conservation benefits in planted tropical forests. A forest-level model was developed that maximized the net present value (NPV) from selling timber and carbon sequestration while maintaining a given level of biodiversity (as per the population density of birds). The model was applied to Eucalyptus urophylla planted forests in Yen Bai Province, Vietnam. It was found that the inclusion of biodiversity conservation in the model induces a longer optimal rotation age compared to the period that maximizes the joint value from timber and carbon sequestration (from 8 to 10.9 years). The average NPV when considering timber values plus carbon sequestration was 13 million Vietnamese Dong (VND) ha^− 1 (765 USD ha^− 1), and timber, carbon sequestration and biodiversity values were 11 million VND (676 USD) ha^− 1. Given this differential, governments in such tropical countries may need to consider additional incentives to forest owners if they are to encourage maximizing biodiversity and its associated benefits. The results also have some implications for implementing the climate control measure of “Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation-plus (REDD +)” in developing countries, i.e., payment for carbon sequestration and biodiversity benefits in planted forests.     

The role of government in operationalising markets for REDD + in Indonesia

The global climate initiative Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD +) initially included carbon markets as one potential policy mechanism to finance a range of forestry projects in developing countries. Indonesia was an early leader on REDD +, and set up the regulatory frameworks and monitoring systems to support demonstration projects that could trade credits in voluntary carbon markets. This article applies a neoliberal governmentality framework to evaluate the development of REDD + market institutions in Indonesia during the Readiness period between 2008 and 2013. It critiques the role of the state in this process, and how the authority of public agencies shapes the actions of private subjects. The case of Indonesia indicates a pivotal role for government agencies at multiple levels in integrating the operation of REDD + market activities within a supportive regime of forest and land management. Critical to this process was legislation to trade in forest carbon and obtain project licenses, devolved land-use planning and forest management that could support commercial activities, and robust MRV surveillance systems to oversee on-ground activities. Despite these efforts, projects were often subject to an uncertain and highly contested forest management regime, undermining attempts to demonstrate the viability of operationalising market mechanisms at the local scale.     

Comparing the profiles,objectives and behaviours of new and longstanding non-industrial private forest owners in Quebec,Canada

Owing primarily to private forest owners' important role in supplying wood to the forest products industry, various studies have attempted to describe owners' profiles, objectives and behaviour. However, there have been few detailed examinations of the differences between the new generation of owners and the previous one. To better understand these differences, an analysis was carried out of data obtained from a telephone survey of a representative sample (n = 1723) of the 134,000 private forest owners in Quebec, Canada.The results reveal differences between the new (< 10 years of ownership) and longstanding forest owners (> 20 years of ownership) responding to the survey. In terms of owners' profiles, a number of variables differed significantly between the two categories of owners: education level, family income, way the first forest was acquired and the distance between the closest woodlot and the owner's place of residence. Differences in the two groups' objectives for owning a forest and for carrying out management work were also identified. Certain behaviours such as harvesting levels and sources of information consulted on forestry also differed significantly between the new and longstanding owners participating in the survey.In short, a shift is occurring towards owners who are from the professional class, are more highly educated and live farther away from their forests. The forest is integrated into these new owners' lifestyles in a different way since it is a leisure-time activity rather than part of their main occupation. The increasing diversity among owners will require a new approach by the agencies and associations offering them services and the government, which wants to encourage owners to harvest wood from their forests.     

木材合法性认证及其对中国木质林产品贸易的影响

木材非法采伐及其相关贸易是导致许多发展中国家毁林和森林退化的重要原因。森林破坏反过来导致约20%的全球碳排放。许多政府和私人部门以及国际社会纷纷采取措施确保木材的合法性。随之而来的木材合法性认证越来越普遍。文中概述木材合法性认证的概念及认证体系,归纳木材合法性认证的要点、局限性和启示,简要分析木材合法性认证对中国木质林产品贸易的影响。     

Service logics and strategies of Swedish forestry in the structural shifts of forest ownership: challenging the “old” and shaping the “new”

ABSTRACT

Sweden is one of the most forested countries in Europe, and it has one of the highest shares of productive forest. Production in forestry is largely reliant on the private non-industrial forest owners, who own half of the forest land. As in many countries, however, forest ownership is changing towards a higher extent of urban, female or non-forestry-background owners. This poses a challenge for the forestry services sector, mainly forest owners’ associations and companies, but also broadly the sector at large. By exploring the sales and marketing processes, this paper analyses the service logics and strategies of Swedish forestry under changing forest ownership, drawing on an interview study covering all the large actors in the Swedish forestry sector. The study illustrates an increased focus of forestry organizations on services from a strategic and managerial perspective, in customer-oriented relationship development and in value creation and sales processes, specifically in order to manage “new” forest owners and the demand of forest industries. The results highlight the domination of service logics associated with timber production and the challenges for the service market and the provision of diversified services to forest owners.     

A financial analysis of rain forest silviculture in southwestern Sri Lanka

We examine the financial aspects of three silvicultural systems to encourage the sustainability of valuable hardwood species in mixed-dipterocarp forests of southwest Sri Lanka. We compare the net present value (NPV) of the current forest management approach (diameter limit harvests) with shelterwood harvests that promote light hardwood timber species. In this analysis, we also consider the potential of enrichment planting various precious timber (Diospyros quaesita — calamander), and non-timber forest product (NTFP) species (Caryota urens — fishtail palm; Elettaria cardamomum var. major — cardamom; Calamus zeylanicus — rattan) in conjunction with timber harvests. Two real (inflation adjusted) discount rates were used, 4 and 6%, respectively. Results show that when real discount rates are low (4%), and advance regeneration is present, NPV is highest for the one-cut shelterwood (US $9983 ha⁻¹). At a high discount rate (6%), reflecting the current short-term concession system and unstable rights to harvest, and where no advance regeneration was present, the diameter limit system (US $7173 ha⁻¹) was the optimum. On sites with advanced regeneration, the one-cut shelterwood system is clearly preferable. For all but rattan, shelterwood treatments provide higher NPVs for NTFPs than diameter limit cuttings primarily because of the higher light regimes and more growing space made available early in the rotation. The value for tea cultivation (US $26,000 ha⁻¹) far exceeds the value of managing these lands for timber alone, explaining the dramatic expansion in tea plantations on private lands. However, our results suggest that managing these lands for a combination of timber and enrichment plantings of NTFPs (US $23,000 ha⁻¹) can be comparable to tea plantations. By managing for NTFPs and timber, forest managers have new opportunities to solve the old problems of high-grading and land-use conversion.     

Scenario analyses for the effects of harvesting intensity on development of forest resources,timber supply,carbon balance and biodiversity of Finnish forestry

We used national scenario analyses to examine the effects of harvesting intensity on the development of forest resources, timber supply, carbon balance, and biodiversity indicators of Finnish forestry in nine 10-year simulation periods (90-year simulation period) under the current climate. Data from the 11th National Forest Inventory of Finland were used to develop five even-flow harvesting scenarios for non-protected forests with the annual harvest ranging from 40 to 100 million m³. The results show that the highest annual even-flow harvest level, which did not decrease the growing stock volume over the 90-year simulation period, was 73 million m³. The total 90-year timber production, consisting of harvested volume and change in growing stock volume, was maximized when the annual harvest was 60 million m³. Volume increment increased for several decades when harvested volume was less than the current volume increment. The total carbon balance of forestry was the highest with low volume of harvested wood. Low harvested volume increased the values of biodiversity indicators, namely volume of deciduous trees, amount of deadwood and area of old forest.     

Deforestation and reforestation needs in Mongolia

This paper provides a brief background to Mongolia’s forest condition in 1994. Over recent years, since the introduction of a market economy and decentralization, there has been a rapid change in the forest sector. In 1994, the total designated forest area of Mongolia was 17.5 million ha, including 12.7 million ha of closed forest or 8.1% of the total land area. The forests are subdivided into (i) special forests; (ii) protection forests; (iii) industrial forests, based on their basic functions. The main causes of deforestation in Mongolia are (i) increasing livestock numbers; (ii) increasing demand for fuel and industrial wood; (iii) the impact of forest fires. Grazing and browsing in forest areas are most destructive to plantations and tree growth, causing deformities and stunting growth. Livestock breeding without adequate management system has major negative impacts on remnant forest growth. According to some statistics, the forest area has decreased by 1.2 million ha over the last 20 years. At present, production and supply of sawn timber boards for the domestic market is carried out without any regard to the actual quantity required. Major wood-based products in Mongolia are railway sleepers, windows and doors, wooden boxes for packing and school and office furniture. Products are also made for the frames of the traditional Mongolian “Ger” and specialized furniture for the interior. By 1996, Mongolia’s forest industry had total sales of US$ 2.1 million, which was 13% more than the previous year.Between 1992 and 1995, the incidence of fires in forest areas increased because a sharp rise in the number of people using the forest and steppe areas to cut trees, pick berries and nuts, collect firewood and deer horns, and to hunt. Mismanagement and negligence of the relevant authorities also contributed to this situation. It is necessary to take strong measures in order to identify the social and economic causes of fire outbreaks. Since 1970, forestry and timber harvesting companies have begun to harvest wild seeds, breed seedlings and conduct reforestation activities. Between 1980 and 1990, on nationwide level, over 20 million standard seedlings were planted in over 40 permanent nurseries to supply the reforestation work. At that time the scope of reforestation expanded. The total area planted over some 30 years has been very small compared to the deforestation. Even if just the area harvested during that period is considered, the reforestation rate is still lower than 15%.     

Valuation and characterization of the timber species in remnants of the Alto Uruguay River ecosystem,southern Brazil

Turvo Park in the Alto Uruguay River region of the State of Rio Grande do Sul is the last intact remnant of the Seasonally Deciduous Forest in southern Brazil. This forest once covered large parts of southern Brazil but it is now reduced to less than 3% of its original size due to intensive logging caused by its exceptional richness in tree species with commercial timber value. The current study presents results on the diversity of timber species inventored in Turvo Park and in a number of small and scattered forest remnants in its vicinity. All timber plants with DBH ≥5 cm were included in the forest inventory on 540 sampling points, established using the point-centred quarter method. On average, 313 plants ha⁻¹ were recorded, belonging to 57 different species from 25 families. Timber species of commercial value represented 64% of all woody species and 36% of all woody plants. Nectandra megapotamica and Apuleia leiocarpa were the main dominant species. Twenty percent of all plants showed a DBH greater than 40 cm, representing 67% of the total log volume. Differences in species diversity and plant density among the forest remnants were detected. The few forest remnants represent an enormous richness of timber species, being the maintainers and propagule repository for all the biodiversity of that ecosystem. A knowledge-based forest management plan is therefore required to secure their vital role in forest enrichment programs or in projects aiming at recovering abandoned and degraded areas, and in breeding programs for the timber production improvement.     

Democratising timber: An assessment of Myanmar's emerging ‘Forest Law Enforcement,Governance and Trade’ (FLEGT) process

Amidst Myanmar (Burma)'s political reform process the forest sector remains an important area awaiting democratisation. Forests historically covered over 50% of the countries' land area, and have been of major importance for both local livelihoods, the national economy and ‘ecosystem services’ such as biodiversity and catchment hydrology. The export timber trade has however played a decisive role in determining forest sector policy and indeed has exerted a significant influence on overall national politics since the colonial era began and continuing to the present day. Under the post-independence military dictatorship the timber trade involved ever more unsustainable plunder, particularly from the 1970s, rapidly degrading forests. But now reform of Myanmar's timber trade is on the national political agenda, reform which will be crucial for the Nation's transition towards an equitable and sustainable development trajectory.New legislative measures within consuming countries, including the EU, to challenge illegally sourced timber and wood product supplies have begun to exert a catalytic influence on Myanmar's forest policies, and converging with domestic civil society pressures have led in 2013 to the initiation of a formal ‘Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade’ (or FLEGT) bilateral process between the European Union and the Government of Myanmar.This paper presents an analysis of the nature of Myanmar's current timber trade and of the challenges and opportunities for reform, particularly in relation to the emerging FLEGT process. We argue that there are eight key aspects of Myanmar's timber trade overdue for democratic reform, which the FLEGT process puts into sharp relief: 1) resolution of ethnic conflicts primarily in upland forested areas, 2) reform of forest tenures; 3) a review of overall forest sector policies and the appropriate place of timber production; 4) reform of military era state timber institutions, 5) a return to silviculturally based sustainable forest management; 6) restructuring of the timber industry away from ‘crony’ domination; 7) measures to combat illegal logging and assure the rule of law; and 8) citizen participation in policy development and implementation.This ‘shopping list’ of democratic reforms implies a major and undoubtedly difficult process ahead, and success is far from certain. From 2013 promising initial progress has already begun on several of these areas. However, although the Government of Myanmar may give the international audience the impression that it is rapidly democratising, on the ground only limited substantive changes are yet experienced in rural areas, and resistance to reform persists amongst the military and their commercial partners. A spectrum of possible outcomes for forest sector reform may be foreseen, from mere token improvements on the dictatorship-era ‘business as usual’ to a thorough realisation of democratic aspirations. The outcome will be determined by the balance of power between civil society, public representatives, timber merchants particularly the powerful so-called ‘crony’ and proxy military business interests, and the intermediating powers of Government (including a significant rent-seeking ‘shadow state’), the EU, and the international markets that drive the demand for Burmese timber. The extent to which the FLEGT process can reinforce the wider democratisation process may be a decisive factor.     

国外森林权属制度改革现状与路径

近30年来,世界许多国家开展了森林及林地权属制度改革。改革的主要方向是将森林/林木的所有权/经营管理权下放给政府之外的利益主体,包括家庭、企业和社区。这种改革涉及到森林管理权和经营利用权的下放及森林所有权私有化等复杂多样的产权形式。文中以联合国粮农组织发布的相关报告及国外林权改革相关文献资料为主要素材,选择德国、日本、新西兰、欧洲部分转型国家及独联体国家等诸多国家的改革案例,对国外林权制度改革类型进行梳理,以总结国外林权制度改革的现状、路径和趋势等,为我国林权制度改革提供借鉴。     

The economic impact of green-up constraints in the southeastern United States

Green-up, or adjacency, requirements are a common constraint in forestry. The American Forest and Paper Association has developed a Sustainable Forestry Initiative that includes a green-up constraint which limits the average clearcut opening to 48 ha for 3 years or until the average height of the regenerated trees is >1.4 m. In addition to constraining the average clearcut size, many forestry companies in the southeastern USA voluntarily limit their maximum clearcut size to between 60 and 90 ha. In this research, a heuristic algorithm was used to develop tactical forest plans that consider both the maximum and average clearcut sizes. Economic effects of the green-up constraints were estimated for situations where intensive management can reduce the length of the green-up time from 3 to 2 years on a 21 600 ha ownership in Georgia (USA). For a 60-ha maximum opening size, this reduction in green-up time from 3 to 2 years resulted in an additional US$ 66 600 in present net worth (PNW) over a 10-year analysis period. This corresponds to a US$ 10 per harvested ha, or a 0.8% increase in PNW. The benefit gained by reducing the length of the green-up period is less with a 90-ha maximum clearcut size, where PNW increases by US$ 45 600, or US$ 6.70 per harvested ha, a 0.5% increase. While the total volume per period was near the volume goal produced by a strategic forest plan, the spatial restrictions and the desire to maximize net present value resulted in lower volume of timber products (sawlogs and chip-and-saw logs) from older forest stands. A sensitivity analysis showed that an increase in price or yield further reduced the economic incentive for the reduction of the length of the green-up constraint. As price or volume decreased below expectations, however, the incentive to use intensive forest management practices to reduce the length of the green-up constraint became more attractive, since the differences between a 2-year and 3-year green-up time requirement may be large enough to pay for more intensive management practices.     

Governing the design of national REDD +: An analysis of the power of agency

This paper investigates how three aspects of governance systems, namely the policy context, the influence of key agents and their discursive practices, are affecting national-level processes of policy design aimed at REDD +, reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries; and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries. We conducted analysis in six REDD + countries (Brazil, Cameroon, Indonesia, Nepal, Papua New Guinea and Vietnam). The paper combines three methods: policy analysis, media-based discourse analysis and policy network analysis. The paper shows that policies both within and outside the forestry sector that support deforestation and forest degradation create path dependencies and entrenched interests that hamper policy change. In addition, most dominant policy coalitions do not challenge business-as-usual trajectories, reinforcing existing policy and political structures. No minority policy coalitions are directly tackling the root causes of deforestation and forest degradation, that is, the politico-economic conditions driving them. Instead they focus on environmental justice issues, such as calls for increased participation of indigenous people in decision-making. Only in two of the six countries are these transformational change coalitions vocal enough to be heard, yet to exercise their agency effectively and to support more substantial reforms, these coalitions would need the participation of more influential policy actors, particularly state agencies that have the authority to make binding decisions about policy. Furthermore, discourses supporting transformational change would need to be reflected in institutional practices and policy decisions.     

Comparing the financial returns from acacia plantations with different plantation densities and rotation ages in Vietnam

In Vietnam, planted forests account for > 26% of total forest area, with approximately two-thirds of the plantation area managed by smallholders and 80% of plantation wood used for woodchip production. With increasing demand for timber for the construction and furniture industry, the Vietnam Government is seeking to encourage growers to increase the rotation age of plantations and produce higher quality timber so that it can meet its 2020 furniture export targets. Progress on this goal is however slow, with growers unsure about the financial case for increasing rotation age. Using a case study of the Ben Hai State Forestry Company (SFC), we compare financial returns from acacia plantations by the rotation ages of 5, 6 and 10 years. The 5 year rotation is for the sole purpose of producing woodchips whilst 6 and 10 year rotations produce both timber and woodchips. Results show that all three types of plantation produce positive returns but the return from 10 year rotation plantations (in terms of NPV and IRR) is much higher than those of others. By increasing the rotation age by 1 year (6 years total) and 5 years (10 years total) from the common practice of 5 years, the net present values from the modelled plantations would increase by about 1.57 times and 4.24 times respectively. The reasons why smallholder grower are not responding to these apparent higher present values and policies that would promote long rotation age plantations are discussed.     

National REDD + reference levels deduced from the global deforestation curve

This article proposes an approach to one of the most prominent problems for the establishment of a REDD + regime — namely reference level determination. We have developed a standardised approach for the consideration of national circumstances in REDD + reference levels, which applies the global curve of forest cover development as the benchmark for accounting of avoided deforestation. The approach draws on the identification and empirical quantification of a global deforestation curve which was created by applying the forest transition concept (Köthke et al., 2013). By the underlying regression model the most relevant national circumstances were identified as the average of 140 countries. These national circumstances represent the development stages of the individual countries, from which their future forest cover development in the global average can be determined.By applying national data for estimating the corresponding average development the article identifies national reference levels for 86 REDD + target countries which are still in their deforestation phase. It is estimated by how much actual deforestation in each country deviates from the mean deforestation curve; the period considered is 2005–2010. This is the first time a uniform global deforestation pattern was used to determine the consideration of national circumstances in REDD + reference levels. The quantitative results provided here may be an important basis for further policy discussions about reference level determination.     

Biomass,harvestable area,and forest structure estimated from commercial timber inventories and remotely sensed imagery in southern Amazonia

The purpose of this study was to determine if spatially-explicit commercial timber inventories (CTI) could be used in conjunction with satellite imagery to improve timber assessments and forest biomass estimates in Amazonia. As part of a CTI, all commercial trees ≥45 cm DBH were measured and georeferenced in 3500 ha of a logging concession in NW Mato Grosso, Brazil. A scientific inventory was conducted of all trees and palms ≥10 cm DBH in 11.1 ha of this area. A total of >20,000 trees were sampled for both inventories. To characterize vegetation radiance and topographic features, regional LANDSAT TM and ASTER images were obtained. Using a stream network derived from the ASTER-based 30 m digital elevation model (DEM), a procedure was developed to predict areas excluded from logging based on reduced impact logging (RIL) criteria. A topographic index (TI) computed from the DEM was used to identify areas with similar hydrologic regimes and to distinguish upland and lowland areas. Some timber species were associated with convergent landscape positions (i.e., higher TI values). There were significant differences in timber density and aboveground biomass (AGB) in upland (6.0 stems ha⁻¹, 33 Mg ha⁻¹) versus lowland (5.4 stems ha⁻¹, 29 Mg ha⁻¹) areas. Upland and lowland, and timber and non-timber areas could be distinguished through single and principal component analysis of LANDSAT bands. However, radiance differences between areas with and without commercial timber on a sub-hectare scale were small, indicating LANDSAT images would have limited utility for assessing commercial timber distribution at this scale. Assuming a 50 m stream buffer, areas protected from logging ranged from 7% (third order streams and above) to 28% (first order and above) of the total area. There was a strong positive relationship between AGB based on the scientific inventory of all trees and from the commercial timber, indicating that the CTI could be used in conjunction with limited additional sampling to predict total AGB (276 Mg ha⁻¹). The methods developed in this study could be useful for facilitating commercial inventory practices, understanding the relationship of tree species distribution to landscape features, and improving the novel use of CTIs to estimate AGB.     

Stand dynamics in a logged and silviculturally treated Costa Rican rain forest, 1988–1996

The lowland rain forests of Central America are poorly known from the standpoint of management for timber production. We studied the stand dynamics of a logged Costa Rican rain forest under three different regimes of post-logging silvicultural treatment. The site was located on low hills with Ultisols in Holdridge's Tropical Wet Forest life zone. The Pentaclethra macroloba-dominated forest had been high graded before planned management began. Management of the 540 × 540 m (29.2 ha) experimental area began with a timber harvest in the whole area during 1989–1990, 4 trees ha⁻¹ being cut overall for 10.1 m³ ha⁻¹. The experimental plots were 180 × 180 m (3.24 ha), comprising a 100 × 100 m (1.0 ha) central permanent sample plot (PSP) with a 40-m wide buffer strip. Two types of post-harvest silvicultural treatment: liberation/refinement (in 1991) and shelterwood (in 1992) were applied under a complete randomized block design with three replicates, using logged but untreated plots as controls. PSP data reported are for the 1988–1996 period for individuals with ≥10 cm DBH. The most marked changes in forest structure were caused by silvicultural treatment, basal area under the liberation/refinement treatment being reduced to ca. 65% of its probable mature forest value. Recruitment exceeded mortality in the years following intervention under all three treatments, but forest structural recovery was slowest under the liberation/refinement treatment. Post-intervention mortality rates appeared higher under the liberation/refinement treatment than under the control or shelterwood treatments, though differences were not statistically significant. In relation to tree attributes, mortality rates increased with decreasing DBH increment, crown illumination and quality of crown form. Commercial DBH increments were higher under the liberation/refinement treatment than in control plots during the 1993–1996 period. On the basis of its response to intervention during the first seven years of management, the forest appears resilient and productive; trends over time in mortality rates under the most intense silvicultural regime require close attention however. Pentaclethra-dominated forests are important components of the productive forest resources of Costa Rica and Nicaragua and, given current deforestation rates in areas such as southern Nicaragua, it is now urgent that the existing biophysical knowledge of these forests be applied to forest conservation and management.     

Prospects and challenges of tenure and forest governance reform in the context of REDD + initiatives in Nepal

This paper argues that the Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD +) initiatives in Nepal have not adequately understood and considered institutional and political issues around forest tenure and governance challenges. The paper is developed based on reviews of polices, assessments of project activities, interviews with key informants, and observation of ongoing REDD + related public discussions. We found that the REDD + initiatives so far appear to have prioritized technical issues such as carbon assessment, reference scenario, and measurement, reporting and verification of emissions. However, a major policy challenge in Nepal is the substantial deforestation and degradation going on, which leads to substantial challenges of leakage and threatens Nepal's National REDD + policy ambition. The key drivers of deforestation and degradation in Nepal are still poorly identified, analyzed and understood. Inadequate focus of Nepal's present REDD + readiness on the core issues of contested forest tenure and frail governance entails that an unrealistic policy and institutional measures would be developed in addressing these issues of deforestation and degradation. Consequently, it would seriously undermine the prospect of achieving emission reduction — the very goal of REDD +. It is suggested that a robust analysis, collective understanding and broadly agreed policy measures for curbing deforestation must be at the core of REDD + readiness process.