Organic poultry production in the United States: Broilers

Since the USDA implemented the National Organic Program, the growth of the organic food market has continued to increase, with organic poultry as leading products. Organic livestock husbandry practices focus on living conditions that permit natural behaviors and provide outdoor access, preventive health management with a prohibition of antibiotics or other drugs (although vaccines can be used), and organic feed. Organic feed is raised without synthetic fertilizers and pesticides; pastures to which birds have access must also be organic. Hatcheries are currently not required to be organic, and conventional chicks may be used if they are under organic management by the second day after hatching. Although alternative, slow-growing genotypes are used in organic production in the European Union, conventional genetics are used in the United States. Poultry products, including meat and eggs, must be handled organically. Most synthetic materials are not permitted in organic food production, whereas most natural materials are; however, the National Organic Program National List specifies which materials are allowed. Of particular interest is an impending ban on the use of synthetic methionine in organic poultry diets. Research in the United States has examined alternative strategies, including the use of slow-growing broilers that are less heavily muscled than conventional fast-growing meat birds, but has not shown these birds to have lower methionine requirements. Research has also examined sensory differences between specialty and conventional meat chickens in the United States. Consumer panelists indicated no preference between these products, although trained panelists found some differences in the flavor of thigh meat. More meat quality differences were due to genotype than to outdoor access. Breast meat from slow-growing birds was more tender than that from fast-growing birds. Outdoor access resulted in leaner meat, but only in the case of slow-growing birds. As interest grows in specialty and organic poultry meat products, additional research is needed.     

Inclusion of High Methionine Corn in Pullet Diets

Synthetic methionine (SM) is routinely added to conventional pullet diets to allow for the formulation of balanced diets. Synthetic methionine, however, is not allowed in organic poultry diets. When SM is not used, diets must be formulated to higher CP levels to achieve the required level of methionine. This study compared inclusion of a commonly used organic corn in pullet starter, grower, and developer diets with a new non-genetically modified high methionine (HM) corn. There were no significant differences in BW gain. The average BW for the pullets on the control and HM corn diets was 1,349 and 1,386 g, respectively. Feed was controlled for most of the study; there were no significant differences in feed consumption or feed efficiency. The results of this study, therefore, indicate that this new HM corn variety is a suitable substitute for organically grown conventional corn varieties in organic pullet diets. The inclusion of HM corn eliminates the need for SM in pullet starter, grower, and developer diets fed to floor-reared Bovan Brown pullets.     

Protein supply in organic broiler diets

Abstract

Organic feed legislation, long-rearing periods and high requirements of sulphur-rich amino acids (AAs) complicate the composition of a well-balanced organic diet for broilers. To evaluate the effect of protein and AA composition, three different diets were fed to 180 Ross broilers, divided over 45 pens. The diets comprised a low crude protein (CP) and AA diet, a high CP diet aiming at AA levels used in conventional production and a low protein diet supplemented with lysine, methionine and threonine up to levels of the high protein diet. Chickens were immunologically challenged with an inactivated infectious bursal disease (IBD) vaccine; antibody titres, heterophil/lymphocyte (H/L) ratios, lymphoid organ weights and digestibility coefficients were recorded. In general, bird performance improved with increasing dietary CP and AA levels. Dietary treatments did not significantly affect any of the measured immune or stress-related parameters.     

畜禽饲粮配合新思路:多配方平行设计

多配方平行设计是另一类畜禽饲粮配合方法,本研究旨在将这种方法应用于动物饲料配方。采用不同组合的多配方平行设计同时配合了生长猪7个不同阶段猪群的饲粮,比较与分析饲粮单位价格、原料用量和养分含量。通过这种设计方法产生的49个生长猪饲粮配方的能量、钙、磷、粗蛋白质、氨基酸、总氮和矿物质的养分含量,都达到或超过美国国家研究委员会(2012)提出的猪营养需要的推荐量,也满足最低成本的要求。实例表明,多配方平行设计能同时配合多个畜禽饲粮,并能在一个大的范围内选到更好的配方,应用于动物饲料配方设计具有实际可行性。     

Nutrient Composition and Digestibility of Organic Broiler Diets and Pasture Forages

Poultry diets are formulated based on requirements of birds reared without access to pasture. Consumer demand for organic and free-range poultry has resulted in an increase in the use of certified organic feed. Organic poultry may have the opportunity to utilize nutrients found in forage. The addition of exogenous enzymes and manipulation of cecal microbial populations may affect the utilization of forage nutrients. The objectives of this study were as follows: 1) to determine AME_n and TME_n of organic grower diets with or without nonstarch polysaccharide enzyme supplementation and compare these values to a conventional grower diet, 2) to determine AME_n, TME_n, and true amino acid digestibility (TAAD) of forage samples with or without nonstarch polysaccharide enzyme supplementation, and 3) to determine if cecum modification affects forage AME_n, TME_n, and TAAD. The experiment was conducted using cecectomized, intact, and intact grass-fed roosters as models. Enzyme supplementation increased AME_n and TME_n values for organic feeds but not forage. Bird type had no effect on AME_n and TME_n for any treatment. The TAAD of forage was not significantly affected by enzyme supplementation. However, trends in bird type effect were observed for several amino acids.     

The effect of genotype,choice feeding,and season on organically reared broilers fed diets devoid of synthetic methionine

In response to the impending ban on synthetic methionine in organic poultry diets, researchers have focused on finding alternative strategies to supply this amino acid. The objectives of this study were to assess performance and carcass characteristics of broilers fed diets devoid of synthetic methionine by using 1) a slow-growing and a fast-growing genotype, 2) choice-feeding management (supplying grain and a complementary premix in 2 separate feeders), and 3) pasture access and seasonal variation. Inclusion of fish meal and high percentages of soybean meal enabled the specific genotype methionine requirement to be met. All diets were certified organic. The experiment was conducted during the grower and finisher phases in 4 different seasons: late fall, spring, summer, and early fall. Pasture access was assessed either by housing broilers on the West Virginia University Organic farm and giving them outdoor access, or by housing broilers on the West Virginia University Animal Sciences farm and giving them no outdoor access. Fast-growing genotypes were superior in performance and carcass characteristics compared with slow-growing genotypes, and choice-feeding management did not improve performance or carcass characteristics. Pasture access tended to have no effect on slow-growing broilers and decreased the performance of fast-growing broilers. Performance was decreased in late fall, likely because of cold ambient temperatures.     

Trends in feed evaluation for poultry with emphasis on in vitro techniques

Accurate knowledge of the actual nutritional value of individual feed ingredients and complete diets is critical for efficient and sustainable animal production. For this reason, feed evaluation has always been in the forefront of nutritional research. Feed evaluation for poultry involves several approaches that include chemical analysis, table values, prediction equations, near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy, in vivo data and in vitro digestion techniques. Among these, the use of animals (in vivo) is the most valuable to gain information on nutrient utilization and is more predictive of bird performance. However, in vivo methods are expensive, laborious and time-consuming. It is therefore important to establish in vitro methods that are reliable, rapid and practical to assess the nutritional quality of feed ingredients or complete diets. Accuracy of the technique is crucial, as poor prediction will have a negative impact on bird performance and, increase feed cost and environmental issues. In this review, the relevance and importance of feed evaluation in poultry nutrition will be highlighted and the various approaches to evaluate the feed value of feed ingredients or complete diets will be discussed. Trends in and practical limitations encountered in feed evaluation science, with emphasis on in vitro digestion techniques, will be discussed.     

Inclusion of Buckwheat in Organic Broiler Diets

Many smaller farms in the United States are switching to organic crop production to remain competitive in an era of industrial agriculture. In doing so, they are cultivating crops not traditionally grown in the area. In the US Midwest, a popular organic crop is buckwheat. As organic corn continues to increase in price, many organic poultry farms are using alternative grains in their poultry diets, including buckwheat. Although buckwheat has been used as a livestock and poultry feed for many years, there are very few published data available on its use. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of buckwheat as the main ingredient in organic broiler diets. Four experimental diets were used, with varying levels of buckwheat: 0, 20, 40, and 60%. The results indicated that up to 60% buckwheat can be included in broiler diets with no significant effect on BW gain. With the 60% inclusion level, however, there was a significant decline in feed efficiency. As the price of organic corn continues to increase, the lower price for buckwheat may make it an economical substitute in organic broiler diets.     

标准回肠消化率在肉鸡饲料原料氨基酸营养价值评定中的应用

为了获得最佳生产性能,配制满足家禽营养需要的日粮配方和将排泄到环境中的过多养分降到最低,已显得尤为重要。关于蛋白质饲料原料,多通过表观回肠消化率反映其利用率。以表观回肠消化率值为基础配制日粮,低估了饲料原料的氨基酸消化率,导致排泄物中养分含量增加。通过内源氨基酸基础损失校正表观回肠消化率所得的标准回肠消化率,能克服表观回肠消化率的局限性。作者讨论了标准回肠氨基酸消化率和内源氨基酸基础损失的估测方法,并对其在肉鸡饲料原料氨基酸营养价值评定中的应用作一总结。     

Effects of grain and oilseed prices on the costs of US poultry production

In 2002, the US government encouraged the production of ethanol and other biofuels through a combination of tax benefits and direct subsidies. Most of the ethanol produced in the United States comes from corn, the most abundant crop available. In 2002, 11% of available US corn was used for ethanol production. By 2008, approximately 30% of the US corn crop was used for ethanol production. The increased demand for corn supplies as a result of the diversion of significant amounts of corn for biofuel production in the United States, combined with increased world demands for feed grains, have resulted in unprecedented feed prices for livestock and poultry. Feed ingredient costs as a percentage of live production costs have increased from 51.8% in 2001 to 68.7% in 2008. Live production costs for broilers increased from $0.25 per pound of live weight in September 2006 to $0.45 in 2008. Similarly, live production costs for turkey meat increased from $0.35 per pound in 2006 to $0.58 in 2008, whereas the live production costs for a dozen eggs increased from $0.34 to $0.56. The increased costs of feed ingredients in the United States have resulted in $9.36 billion in cumulative additional costs to the poultry industries since 2006. Despite increases in land planted to corn and soybeans, the demand for feed grains has outpaced the supply. These factors will likely continue to put pressure on poultry producers in the United States as they seek to regain profitability.     

Essential oil and aromatic plants as feed additives in non-ruminant nutrition:a review

This paper summarizes the current knowledge regarding the possible modes of action and nutritional factors involved in the use of essential oils(EOs) for swine and poultry.EOs have recently attracted increased interest as feed additives to be fed to swine and poultry,possibly replacing the use of antibiotic growth promoters which have been prohibited in the European Union since 2006.In general,EOs enhance the production of digestive secretions and nutrient absorption,reduce pathogenic stress in the gut,exert antioxidant properties and reinforce the animal's immune status,which help to explain the enhanced performance observed in swine and poultry.However,the mechanisms involved in causing this growth promotion are far from being elucidated,since data on the complex gut ecosystem,gut function,in vivo oxidative status and immune system are still lacking.In addition,limited information is available regarding the interaction between EOs and feed ingredients or other feed additives(especially pro- or prebiotics and organic acids).This knowledge may help feed formulators to better utilize EOs when they formulate diets for poultry and swine.     

Peel meals as feed ingredients in poultry diets: Chemical composition,dietary recommendations and prospects

The increase demand for poultry products has had direct effect on the supply and price of feed. This has increased research interest into the potential of locally available, less competed and low cost materials as feed ingredients. Several peels from roots/tubers and fruits have been evaluated in poultry diets but recommendations have not been consistent. High fibre, low nutrient density and likely presence of antinutritional factors limit the efficient utilisation of peel meal by poultry. Plant cultivar, age, agronomic practices, method of peel processing, breed and age of poultry all affect the inclusion level of peel meal in poultry diets. The increase interest in breeding crops for low antinutrients, knowledge in processing technologies and availability of several additives such as enzyme products, amino acids and antinutrients binding agents in the feed market could improve the usefulness of peel meal in on‐farm poultry rations. This study reviews the potential of selected root/tuber and fruit peels as feed ingredients for poultry with regards their composition, dietary recommendation and prospects.     

Essential oil and aromatic plants as feed additives in non-ruminant nutrition: a review

This paper summarizes the current knowledge regarding the possible modes of action and nutritional factors involved in the use of essential oils (EOs) for swine and poultry. EOs have recently attracted increased interest as feed additives to be fed to swine and poultry, possibly replacing the use of antibiotic growth promoters which have been prohibited in the European Union since 2006. In general, EOs enhance the production of digestive secretions and nutrient absorption, reduce pathogenic stress in the gut, exert antioxidant properties and reinforce the animal’s immune status, which help to explain the enhanced performance observed in swine and poultry. However, the mechanisms involved in causing this growth promotion are far from being elucidated, since data on the complex gut ecosystem, gut function, in vivo oxidative status and immune system are still lacking. In addition, limited information is available regarding the interaction between EOs and feed ingredients or other feed additives (especially pro- or prebiotics and organic acids). This knowledge may help feed formulators to better utilize EOs when they formulate diets for poultry and swine.     

建立动态饲料数据库的意义及方法

在配合饲料前获得准确的饲料原料的营养价值对高效的动物生产至关重要。由于当前缺乏快速而廉价的饲料检测技术,营养学家和畜禽生产者都依据饲料数据库对原料的营养价值进行估测。但是现有的饲料数据库中存在信息不完全,过时或者参考的价值有限等问题。畜牧业需要一个包含大量的饲料原料营养价值的动态数据库。这种数据库可以通过低成本饲料配方提高饲料的利用效率。通过建立这类数据库,研究人员也可以挖掘饲料原料的营养价值及其影响因素。这种动态数据库同时可以作为一种参考数据库用于比较各种饲料原料的营养价值。     

Necrotic enteritis: Applications for the poultry industry

Considering market demands concerning the decreased use of growth promoters and anticoccidial drugs in feed formulations, the poultry industry has been trying to reduce or eliminate the inclusion of subtherapeutic doses of antimicrobials into feed. Formulating diets not only to meet birds’ nutrient requirements for growth but also for gastrointestinal health parameters is increasingly important. Maintenance and enhancement of intestinal integrity is essential for bird performance when antimicrobials are not included in feed, as commercial poultry face numerous enteric pathogen challenges. Necrotic enteritis has reemerged as an important disease of poultry in recent years. The reduction in the use of antimicrobials in poultry feeds has been attributed as one of the main contributing factors for the increasing incidence of necrotic enteritis (NE) in commercial poultry. Mortality due to NE is extremely high (1% daily mortality), which results in great economic losses. Economic losses due to NE are not only associated with high mortality, but also associated with decreases in bird performance and FE, particularly in subclinical cases of NE. Birds that survive NE outbreaks usually have a reduced ability to digest and absorb nutrients due to extensive damage to the mucosal lining, which ultimately results in reduced profitability.     

Biosecurity and bird movement practices in upland game bird facilities in the United States

Since 1996, the emergence of Asian-origin highly pathogenic avian influenza subtype H5N1 has spurred great concern for the global poultry industry. In the United States, there is concern over the potential of a foreign avian disease incursion into the country. Noncommercial poultry operations, such as upland game bird facilities in the United States, may serve as a potential source of avian disease introduction to other bird populations including the commercial poultry industry, backyard flocks, or wildlife. In order to evaluate how to prevent disease transmission from these facilities to other populations, we examined biosecurity practices and bird movement within the upland game bird industry in the United States. Persons that held a current permit to keep, breed, or release upland game birds were surveyed for information on biosecurity practices, flock and release environments, and bird movement parameters. Biosecurity practices vary greatly among permit holders. Many facilities allow for interaction between wild birds and pen-reared birds, and there is regular long-distance movement of live adult birds among facilities. Results suggest that upland game bird facilities should be targeted for biosecurity education and disease surveillance efforts.     

Exotic Newcastle disease

Exotic Newcastle disease (END) is a virulent strain of avian paramyxovirus-1. This virus has devastated the poultry industry in many countries. As a result, strict international regulations are in place to control the movement of exotic birds, poultry, and poultry products to prevent the introduction of this disease into countries where it has been eradicated. When END is introduced to a naı̈ve, unvaccinated population of poultry, mortality may reach 100%. Signs in chickens will depend on the strain of END involved. However, this disease should be suspected in any outbreak of disease in poultry where there is high mortality and respiratory, gastrointestinal and/or central nervous system signs are observed. In the most recent END outbreak in the United States, many birds had edematous heads, cyanosis, and diphtheritic lesions of the trachea, oral cavity, and esophagus. Signs in companion birds are variable and often nonspecific. Practitioners, however, should suspect this disease in parrots, particularly Amazon parrots, if the sick bird is of questionable origin and over the course of the disease develops signs related to the central nervous system. Efforts to keep END out of the United States have been largely successful; however, on repeated occasions in the last 30 years, END has entered the United States through the illegal transport of fighting chickens and psittacine birds. In two cases, END has made it into commercial poultry operations, resulting in the slaughter of millions of birds and a significant economic impact to poultry and exotic bird producers. Education about this disease, strict biosecurity measures, and continued vigilance will be necessary to prevent future outbreaks of END.     

Threonine requirements of broiler chickens: Why do published values differ?

1. A statistical analysis of published data using restricted maximum likelihood showed that the age of the bird and the dietary crude protein concentration in test diets explained most of the variation in published threonine requirements. The sex of the bird and the main ingredients in the test diets were less important contributors of variation. The analysis resulted in a model that we tested in an accompanying paper. 2. Published data on threonine requirements are less variable than they first appear. There is no need for a plethora of studies on nutrient requirements other than those that test specific hypotheses, take a modelling approach and endeavour to explain requirements as units of nutrient per unit of production. 3. Models that use published data for predicting the responses of broilers to amino acids should first standardise the data by removing the variation due to factors such as age of bird, dietary crude protein content and the raw materials used in the ration.