Clinical and Para-clinical Findings of a Recent Outbreaks of Peste des Petits Ruminants in Iran

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious and infectious viral disease of domestic and wild small ruminants characterized by fever, erosive stomatitis, conjunctivitis, gastroenteritis and pneumonia. Goats are usually more severely affected than sheep. Peste des petits ruminants is caused by a paramyxovirus of the Morbillivirus genus. In March 2004, a flock of sheep in Tehran province with 430 deaths was visited. According to the history taken from the owner, at disease onset most of the deaths were recorded from adult sheep, 3 weeks later lambs (2 weeks to 4 months of age) showed the highest death rate. All animals from 3 months age received rinderpest vaccine 1 month after onset. Many of the lambs died just a few hours after their first sucking of the colostrum from infected mothers. Most of them showed very acute form of disease and died a few hours after onset of clinical signs. In clinical examinations most of the cases showed severe depression, high fever (41 degrees C), anorexia, mocopulurent nasal discharge, erosive and necrotic stomatitis (dental path, hard palate and cheeks), diarrhoea and dehydration. Para-clinical findings including histopathological, serological and haematological examinations also confirmed the presence of PPR in this flock. PPR outbreaks have been frequent in Iran in recent years. Further, we suggest that PPR is not a recent invader of Iran. The main difference in clinical signs between this outbreak and the same in other reports is that goats did not show any obvious signs of PPR. This might be due to the number of the goats (>1% of the flock) and keeping them separate from the sheep. The present article reviews the details of this outbreak in Iran.     

Clinical and Para‐clinical Findings of a Recent Outbreaks of Peste des Petits Ruminants in Iran

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious and infectious viral disease of domestic and wild small ruminants characterized by fever, erosive stomatitis, conjunctivitis, gastroenteritis and pneumonia. Goats are usually more severely affected than sheep. Peste des petits ruminants is caused by a paramyxovirus of the Morbillivirus genus. In March 2004, a flock of sheep in Tehran province with 430 deaths was visited. According to the history taken from the owner, at disease onset most of the deaths were recorded from adult sheep, 3 weeks later lambs (2 weeks to 4 months of age) showed the highest death rate. All animals from 3 months age received rinderpest vaccine 1 month after onset. Many of the lambs died just a few hours after their first sucking of the colostrum from infected mothers. Most of them showed very acute form of disease and died a few hours after onset of clinical signs. In clinical examinations most of the cases showed severe depression, high fever (41°C), anorexia, mocopulurent nasal discharge, erosive and necrotic stomatitis (dental path, hard palate and cheeks), diarrhoea and dehydration. Para‐clinical findings including histopathological, serological and haematological examinations also confirmed the presence of PPR in this flock. PPR outbreaks have been frequent in Iran in recent years. Further, we suggest that PPR is not a recent invader of Iran. The main difference in clinical signs between this outbreak and the same in other reports is that goats did not show any obvious signs of PPR. This might be due to the number of the goats (>1% of the flock) and keeping them separate from the sheep. The present article reviews the details of this outbreak in Iran.     

Prevalence of peste des petits ruminants among sheep and goats in India

This study measured the clinical prevalence of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) among sheep and goats in India between 2003 and 2009 by analyzing clinical samples from suspected cases of PPR that were submitted to the Rinderpest and Allied Disease Laboratory, Division of Virology, IVRI, Mukteswar for PPR diagnosis. PPR outbreaks were confirmed by detecting PPR virus (PPRV)-specific antigen in the clinical samples. Clinical samples (blood, nasal swabs, spleen, lymph node, kidney, liver, intestine, and pooled tissue materials) were taken from a total of 592 sheep and 912 goats in different states of India and screened for the presence of PPRV antigen using a monoclonal antibody-based sandwich ELISA kit. A total of 20, 38, and 11 laboratory-confirmed PPR outbreaks occurred among sheep, goat, and combined sheep and goat populations, respectively. Our findings provide evidence of widespread PPR endemicity in India. The underlying reasons could be variations in husbandry practices in different geographical regions, agro-climatic conditions, and livestock migration. Furthermore, decrease in the number of PPR outbreaks over time might be due to the effectiveness of current live PPR vaccines and timely vaccination of target species. Vaccination against PPR has been practiced in India since 2002 to control this disease.     

Foot and mouth disease, rinderpest, peste des petits ruminants and avian influenza in the erbil, dohuk, and sulaimania governorates of iraq

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) outbreaks in the northern part of Iraq have been reported. The outbreaks in 1998/1999 were due to type O virus and the disease was associated with significant mortalities especially in young calves and lambs. Furthermore, 10 FMD-like incidents in cattle were reported in 2002 in the three northern governorates. However, these cases were not associated with mortalities and the disease remained localized in the primary foci. Type A virus was isolated from the tested samples, which appears to belong to a genetic lineage within the Iran-96 topotype. A peste des petits ruminants (PPR) outbreak was reported on 27 July, 1998 in Faida, a border town between Ninevah and Dohuk governorates in Iraq. The disease was also reported from four villages: Azadi, Kherpe Sufla, Beibinava and Kendala Sur in northern Iraq. Outbreaks of PPR were also reported in the Aqre region of Dohuk and in Erbil and Sulaimania governorates. Although this disease had been suspected in the central and northern governorates for several years, and was known to be present in neighbouring countries, this was the first official report of PPR in the country and caused great concern. Two human cases of avian influenza (AI) were recorded in the Sulaimania Governorate in January 2006 and the virus was identified as H5N1 by the WHO collaborating laboratory in the United Kingdom. Based on clinical symptoms a number of cases were recorded in February, 2006 in Misan in South Iraq. However, further tests revealed that all these cases were not due to AI.     

Peste des petits ruminants in wild ungulates

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a contagious viral disease of domestic small ruminants. It also affects wild ungulates but there are comparatively few studies of the incidence of natural infection, clinical signs and pathology, and confirmation of the virus, and in these species. In this article, we list the wild ungulates in which PPRV infection has been confirmed and summarize available information about the presentation of the disease, its identification, and impact of virus on wildlife populations. Considering recent reports of outbreaks by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), it is important to understand the transmission of this disease within wildlife populations in PPR endemic regions.     

The isolation of adenoviruses from goats affected with peste des petits ruminants in Nigeria.

Mucosal scrapings from the large intestine of two goats that had died from peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in separate outbreaks in Nigeria were examined for viruses. A mixed viral infection of PPR virus (morbillivirus) and adenovirus was confirmed in both goats. The adenoviruses did not conform to any of the ovine and bovine serotypes recognised; the two isolates were considered different serotypes. It is concluded that, although the role of adenoviruses in the epizootiology of PPR in Nigeria is difficult to appraise, they are probably commensals. This is believed to be the first report of the isolation of adenoviruses from goats.     

小反刍兽疫研究现状

小反刍兽疫(Peste des petits ruminants,PPR)是由小反刍兽疫病毒(Peste des petits ruminants virus,PPRV)引起的一种主要感染小反刍动物的急性、接触性传染病,发病率、死亡率高.近年来,小反刍兽疫(PPR)呈扩散的趋势,成为重要的跨国动物传染病之一,我国周边国家频繁器发该病.2007年7月25日暴发于西藏自治区日土县的我国首例小反刍尊疫疫情,更是对我国如何做好该病的防控工作提出了新的要求和挑战.为了增强广大兽医工作者和相关人士对本病的认识,文中就小反刍兽疫的病原学、流行病学、临床症状、病理特征以及诊断方法等方面的研究现状进行了综述.     

The detection of antibody against peste des petits ruminants virus in Sheep,Goats, Cattle and Buffaloes

Monoclonal antibody-based competitive ELISA (C-ELISA) has been used for the specific measurement of antibodies to peste des petits ruminants (PPR) viruses in sheep, goats, cattle and Buffalo. Serum samples from sheep (n = 232), goats (n = 428), cattle (n = 43), buffalo (n = 89) were tested. The animals had not been vaccinated against rinderpest or PPR. Findings suggested that the sero-positive cases were significantly higher in sheep (51.29%) than in goats (39.02%) (P = 0.002). The overall sero-prevalence of PPRV in small ruminants was 43.33%. The PPR antibodies seroprevalence was 67.42% in buffalo and 41.86% in cattle which was significantly higher in buffalo (P = 0.005). The overall sero-prevalence of PPRV in large ruminants was 59.09%. Cattle and buffalo sera showed a high prevalence of antibody against PPR virus which may explain the difficulty experienced in achieving high post-vaccination immunity levels against rinderpest. Because antibodies against PPR virus are both cross-neutralizing and cross-protective against rinderpest virus, further vaccination in the presence of antibodies against PPR virus may be a waste of national resources. It was also suggested that antibodies to PPR virus could prevent an immune response to the rinderpest vaccine. This paper presents serological evidence for the transmission of PPR virus from sheep and goats to cattle and buffalo and highlights the need to include PPR serology in the sero-monitoring programme to give a better indication of national herd immunity of sheep and goats against PPR.     

小反刍兽疫的流行、诊断与防控

小反刍兽疫是一种传染性极强的病毒性疾病,主要影响家养及野生的小反刍动物。该病的主要特征是发热、口腔炎、结膜炎、肠胃炎和肺炎,是世界动物卫生组织(World Organization for Animal Health,OIE)规定必须上报的疾病之一。文章对该病的流行与传播、诊断方法及防控措施进行了综述。     

Antibody seroprevalences against peste des petits ruminants (PPR) virus in camels, cattle, goats and sheep in Ethiopia

A questionnaire-survey data indicated that 26% of 276 farmers reported the presence of respiratory disease in their herds in 2001. The incidence was perceived as "high" in small ruminants and camels, but as "low" in cattle. Simultaneously, 2815 serum samples from camels (n=628), cattle (n=910), goats (n=442) and sheep (n=835) were tested. The peste des petits ruminants (PPR) antibody seroprevalence was 3% in camels, 9% in cattle, 9% in goats and 13% in sheep. The highest locality-specific seroprevalences were: camels 10%, cattle 16%, goats 22% and sheep 23%. The animals had not been vaccinated against rinderpest or PPR. Antibody seroprevalences detected in camels, cattle, goats and sheep confirmed natural transmission of PPR virus under field conditions.     

小反刍兽疫的流行、诊断与防控

小反刍兽疫是一种传染性极强的病毒性疾病,主要影响家养以及野生的小反刍动物。该病的主要特征是发热、口腔炎、结膜炎、肠胃炎和肺炎。小反刍兽疫也是世界动物卫生组织（0IE）规定必须上报的法定疾病之一。文章对该病的流行、传播方式、诊断方法以及防控措施进行了综述。     

小反刍兽疫活疫苗的安全性评价试验

2007年小反刍兽疫(PPR)在我国西藏首次暴发,在西藏和新疆部分地区使用PPR Nigeria 75/1疫苗株制造的疫苗进行免疫接种。为明确疫苗的安全性,中国兽医药品监察所国家牛瘟参考实验室对其安全性能进行了系统评价。健康易感山羊、绵羊及怀孕山羊、怀孕绵羊按不同剂量接种疫苗后,均未观察到异常临床反应;怀孕母羊所产羔羊数量与对照组无明显差异。疫苗对小白鼠、豚鼠的非特异性安全试验表明,所有接种动物均健活。结果表明该疫苗安全性良好,可在田间大规模使用。     

Pathological and immunohistochemical study of experimental peste des petits ruminants virus infection in goats

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an emerging, economically important viral disease of goats and sheep in the Indian subcontinent. In the present investigation, 15 hill goats were experimentally infected with 2 ml of 10% splenic suspension of a virulent isolate of PPR virus (PPR/Izatnagar/94) that had caused heavy mortality (>75%) in goats during 1994 outbreaks in northern India. More than 86% (13 of 15) animals died between 9 and 13 days post inoculation at the height of temperature or when temperatures were declining. Necropsy findings included congestion of gastrointestinal tract (GIT), nasal sinuses, consolidation of antero-ventral lobes of lungs, engorged spleen, and occasionally oedematous lymph nodes. Histopathological examination of major organs of GIT revealed degeneration and necrosis of labial mucosa, severe mucosal and submucosal congestion, degeneration and necrosis of intestinal epithelium and lymphoid cell depletion from Peyer's patches along with presence of syncytia at times. Lungs showed broncho-interstitial changes and presence of intracytoplasmic and intranuclear eosinophilic inclusions in alveolar macrophages and syncytial cells. These changes in lungs were frequently complicated with serofibrinous pneumonia (57%, eight of 14). Lymphocytolysis and occasional syncytia formation were evident in the lymphoid tissues. Immunohistochemical (IHC) findings included presence of PPR virus antigen in the labial, intestinal, and bronchiolar epithelial cells, pneumocytes, macrophages and syncytial cells in lungs, and lymphoid (intact and necrotic) and reticular cells in lymphoid organs. The findings of the study indicated the highly virulent nature of the PPR virus isolate (PPR/Izatnagar/94), causing 100% mortality and characteristic pathological changes in the target organs such as lungs, intestines and lymphoid tissues. The results of the IHC study suggested that indirect immunoperoxidase could be an alternative method in the absence of more sophisticated methods of laboratory diagnosis of PPR virus infection in goats.     

小反刍兽疫诊断方法的研究进展

小反刍兽疫（Peste des petits ruminants,PPR）是由副黏病毒科麻疹病毒属的小反刍兽疫病毒（Peste des petits ruminants virus, PPRV）引起的包括一些野生动物在内的小反刍动物的一种急性、烈性、致死性、高度接触性传染病,是严重危害畜牧业生产安全的重大跨国动物疫病之一。近年来,全球PPR疫情复杂,我国周边多个国家呈地方性流行态势。我国近期也陆续在多个省份发现疑似和确诊疫情。2014年3月27日,农业部宣布针对小反刍兽疫疫情启动一级响应。加强小反刍兽疫诊断工作、加快新型诊断试剂研发工作是当下做好防控小反刍兽疫的必要前提和必然要求,本文介绍了几种小反刍兽疫诊断方法的研究进展,为该病的诊断和有效防控提供理论依据。     

Outbreaks of peste des petits ruminants in village goat flocks in Nigeria

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a major disease constraint of goat production in Nigeria. Investigation of three outbreaks in village goat populations in south-west Nigeria showed overall attack rates of 42.4%, 13.7% and 37.1% and case fatality rates of 86.9%, 41% and 63.9% respectively. Statistically significant differences were observed between attack rates in different age groups in each of the outbreaks. Based on the mortalities suffered the estimated average loss per goat in each of the three outbreaks was N9.15, N1.36 and N5.84 respectively. On the assumption that a goat population is subjected to an outbreak of the disease every five years these estimates would indicate that an annual sum ranging from N1.83 per goat at the highest level of loss and N0.27 per goat at the lowest level of loss could be profitably spent in the successful prevention of the disease.     

Economics of Prophylaxis against Peste des Petits Ruminants and Gastrointestinal Helminthosis in Small Ruminants in North Cameroon

Data on reproduction and mortality were collected over one year from 5100 sheep and 13 300 goats in treated and control flocks. The treated animals received vaccination against peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and anthelmintics twice a year. Productivity parameters (fecundity and mortality rates) obtained with and without prophylaxis were fitted into a benefit–cost economic analysis model and run for project lifespans varying from one to five years. At a 7% discount rate, the overall benefits for a project lifespan of five years were estimated as over 15 million FCFA and 11 million FCFA for sheep and goats, respectively. The benefit–cost ratio ranged from 2.26 to 3.27 in goats and 3.01 to 4.23 in sheep, depending on the project lifespan. It was concluded that PPR and gastrointestinal helminthosis are important causes of economic losses in small ruminants in Cameroon. A national or even a regional vaccination campaign against PPR and strategic anthelmintic treatment of small ruminants are recommended.     

Current perspectives on conventional and novel vaccines against peste des petits ruminants

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an acute or subacute, highly contagious viral disease of small ruminants, characterized by fever, oculonasal discharges, stomatitis, diarrhoea and pneumonia. This disease is included in the OIE (Office International des Epizooties) list of notifiable terrestrial animal diseases. PPR was first described in the early 1940s in Côte d′Ivoire, and at present, PPR is mainly circulating in Western and Central Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and Southern Asia. Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV), the etiological agent of PPR, is classified into the genus Morbillivirus in the family Paramyxoviridae, as its biological and physicochemical features are closely related to the other morbilliviruses. The first homologous PPR vaccine was developed by an artificially attenuated PPRV, named as Nigeria 75/1, which has been widely used in the production of live attenuated vaccines to protect small ruminants. A new generation of PPR vaccine candidates can be genetically modified to differentiate infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA), which nevertheless is difficult to achieve by conventional vaccines. In this review, we systematically discussed a broad range of vaccines against PPR, including commercially available vaccines and potential vaccine candidates, and further DIVA strategies for immunization with the new generation vaccines.     

Peste des petits ruminants infection in domestic ruminants in Sudan

The existence of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in domestic ruminants and camels in Sudan during 2008–2012 was investigated. Lung tissues and serum samples were randomly collected from sheep, goats, cattle, and camels at different areas of Sudan. A total of 12,384 serum samples were collected from clinically healthy 7413 sheep, 1988 camels, 1501 cattle, 1459 goats, and 23 gazelles at different areas in the Sudan. They were examined for PPR antibodies using competitive ELISA (cELISA). The overall detected seroprevalence of PPR in tested sera was 49.4%; seroprevalence values within species were 67.1, 48.2, 25.8, 2.1, and 21.7% in sheep, goat, cattle, camels, and gazelles, respectively. The highest seroprevalence (68.1%) was observed in sera collected from Darfur states, then the central states (54.3%). A total of 1276 lung tissue samples (623 sheep, 324 cattle, 220 camels, and 109 goats) were collected. The majority of lung samples were collected from clinically healthy animals that showed lesions on PM in slaughterhouses (95%) and during PPR outbreaks; samples were tested for PPR antigen using immunocapture ELISA (IcELISA). PPR antigen was detected in 233 out of the 1276 tested samples (18.3%). Positive results were observed in samples collected from clinically healthy and diseased animals. The observed prevalence values in each species were 33.6, 21.1, 15.4, and 12.3% in camel, goat, sheep, and cattle, respectively. PPR antigen was detected in samples from different areas; however, the highest prevalence (63.9%) was found in samples collected from the eastern states, then Khartoum state (28%). Trials for virus isolation were done in different cell cultures. Out of 30 IcELISA-positive samples inoculated in primary bovine and ovine kidney cells, Vero cells, the PPR virus was successfully isolated from 15 (eight sheep, five camels, and two goats) samples in the three cell culture types. Using RT-PCR, PPRV nucleic acid was detected in all 25 IcELISA-positive tested samples.