Characterization of local chicken production systems and their potential under different levels of management practice in Jordan

This study aimed to characterize the local chickens and their production systems and to investigate the opportunities for improvement. The study was carried out in 18 villages in northern Jordan with the participation of 120 households. Data were collected by individual interviews and surveys supported with structured questionnaires. A scoring system was developed to study the effect of different levels of management on chicken performance. The main reasons for keep local chickens were egg production and generation of income. The main features of the production systems were improper housing and inadequate hygiene. Newcastle disease, predators, and parasites were the main causes of flock losses. Purchasing rate was controlled by the chickens’ phenotype, sex and age, and by season of year. The average flock size was 41.6 (±32.9) chickens per household, with a hen:cock ratio of 6.4:1. The average effective population size was 15.35, which indicated a high rate of inbreeding (5.52%). The main selection criterion adopted by farmers was egg production. There were positive significant correlations (p < 0.001) between management level and chickens’ performance. Hatchability, survivability, flock size, number of clutches, egg weight and egg mass were the major parameters that improved significantly with improvement in management level. Local chickens fulfil significant functions in the livelihood of rural smallholders; however, many constraints affected the efficiency of the production systems. Solutions should start with improving the management practices and establishing an effective breeding system.     

Production objectives and trait preferences of village poultry producers of Ethiopia: implications for designing breeding schemes utilizing indigenous chicken genetic resources

To generate information essential for the implementation of breeding schemes suitable for village poultry producers in Ethiopia, a survey was conducted aimed at defining the socioeconomic characteristics of the production environments in different geographic regions, understanding the important functions of chickens, identifying farmers’ choice of chicken breeds and the underlying factors that determine the choice of genetic stock used. The survey included both questionnaire survey and a participatory group discussion. A total of 225 households (45 households from each of five Woredas) were interviewed. The questionnaire was designed to collect data covering general information on village poultry production such as socio-management characteristics, production objectives, population structure, breed choice and trait preferences, market preferences of specific traits, and farmers’ selection practices. The participatory farmers’ discussions were designed to involve stakeholders in defining the breeding objective “traits” and deriving their relative importance in the production environment based on the different functions of chickens and “traits” identified in the interviews. The results showed that production of eggs for consumption is the principal function of chickens in most regions followed by the use as source of income and meat for home consumption. The production system in all geographic regions studied revealed similar features generally characterized by extensive scavenging management, absence of immunization programs, increased risk of exposure of birds to disease and predators, and reproduction entirely based on uncontrolled natural mating and hatching of eggs using broody hens. Farmers’ ratings of indigenous chickens with respect to modern breeds showed the highest significance of the adaptive traits in general, and the superior merits of indigenous chickens to high yielding exotic breeds in particular. Adaptation to the production environment was the most important attribute of chickens in all the study areas. The high significance attributed to reproduction traits indicates the need for maintaining broody behavior and high level of hatchability while breeding for improved productivity of indigenous chickens for village conditions. The market price of chickens is primarily dictated by weight, but farmers rated growth (males) and number of eggs followed by growth (females) as the production traits they would like the most to be improved. Therefore, the ultimate breeding goal should be to develop a dual-purpose breed based on indigenous chicken genetic resources with any of the comb types other than single for all the regions studied having the most preferred white body plumage for farmers in the Amhara region and red body plumage for those in Oromia, Benshangul-Gumuz, and Southern regions.     

Community-based interventions for the use and conservation of animal genetic resources: the case of indigenous scavenger chicken production in Benin

Scavenging chicken production in Africa is important for the livelihood of the poor. In most countries, these low inputs, low output systems employ local breeds making use of the feeding resources available in the household. However, their replacement with introduced exotic breeds with higher productivities represents a risk for their conservation. Here, we present a simulation model to evaluate the impact of community-based interventions aiming to improve the profitability of local chicken breeds and promote their use and conservation. The results indicate that under the current conditions, farmers producing exotic chicken are able to sell more animals in a one year period; however the market price of local chicken makes their production more profitable. Vaccination campaigns significantly reduce the mortality rate of both breeds, having a positive effect on producers’ income but its impact on animal off-take is larger for exotic breeds, and the availability of feeding resources is the limiting factor as the flock size increases. The results of the intervention are positive in terms of increasing farmers’ income but do not clearly contribute to the conservation of indigenous breeds since after the vaccination campaign, the gap between the profitability of indigenous and exotic breeds is reduced. The simulation model indicates that under the current conditions, the conservation of indigenous chicken breeds in Benin is maintained by the existence of distinct niche markets with consumers able to pay higher prices for indigenous chicken. Policies for the conservation of chicken genetic resources in Benin are discussed.     

Integrated approach for improving small scale market oriented dairy systems in Pakistan: participatory rural appraisal and economic opportunity survey

Livestock production is an integral part of the rain-fed and irrigated agriculture system in Pakistan. Animal production is closely interlinked with the cropping systems and play a crucial role in the rural economy. Participatory rural appraisals and economic opportunity surveys were conducted in two ecological zones (irrigated and rain-fed) and two dairy production systems (peri-urban and mixed livestock). Major constraints in animal health, nutrition and reproduction were identified and interventions were suggested to overcome these difficulties. The economic opportunity survey revealed that maximum opportunity to enhance farmers’ income is to increase milk production per day per animal, which can be accomplished through coordinated improvements in nutrition, reproduction and genetics.     

The multiple burdens of zoonotic disease and an ecohealth approach to their assessment

Individual interviews were conducted in 137 households using semi-structured questionnaires to determine the influence of socioeconomic factors on production constraints faced by indigenous chicken producers in the rural areas of South Africa. The major constraints to village chicken production were mortality (95 % of the households) followed by feed shortage (85 %) and low chicken sales (72 %). The logistic regression model showed that households that owned imported/crossbred chickens practiced extensive production system without housing structures and did not have vaccines were more likely to experience high levels of chicken mortality. Poor and youth-headed households with no supplements and vaccines had high probability of Newcastle disease. The probability of a household to experience chicken feed shortage was lower in households that owned indigenous chickens than those that owned imported/crossbred chickens (odds ratio, 11.68; 95 % confidence interval, 1.19–27.44). Youth-headed households that had small flocks and no access to veterinary services were not likely to sell chickens. It was concluded that gender, age, wealth status, production system, chicken flock size, type of chicken breed owned, accessibility of veterinary services, availability of supplements, vaccines and shelter influence village chicken farmer’s production constraints such as feed availability, chicken mortality, prevalence of diseases and chicken sales.     

Smallholders’ perceptions of goat farming in southern Benin and opportunities for improvement

To be successful, initiatives to improve smallholder’s goat production should directly address the needs and objectives of the keepers while promoting rational use of local genetic resources. This paper identifies the objectives, constraints and needs of goat farmers in southern Benin and discusses their relevance to the development of improvement programmes. Between November and December 2005, structured questionnaires, focus group discussions and participant observation were used to collect information from 38 goat farmers in two selected locations. Goats were kept mainly for sale whenever cash was needed. Traits related to reproduction, to behaviour, to health and to meat production were considered equally important and were ranked very highly by goat keepers. Increased net income per flock through increased number of marketable animals is the derived breeding objective from the trait analysis. Disease outbreaks resulting in high mortality, poor housing, and feed shortages were, in descending order, the most important problems. It was concluded that the development of initiatives to improve management practices is an overriding priority. It will lead to increases in productivity in the short term and foster farmers’ participation in the development of long-term improvement strategies, which should include selection and controlled mating.     

Socioeconomic characteristics of urban and peri-urban dairy production systems in the North western Ethiopian highlands

In order to evaluate the socio-economic characteristics of urban and peri-urban dairy production systems in the North western Ethiopian highlands, a field survey was conducted which included 256 farms. It is concluded that urban farmers tend to specialize on dairy production and support the family income from non-agricultural activities, while agricultural activities other than milk production forms an additional source of income in peri-urban farms. The specialization of urban dairy producers includes the more frequent use of crossbred cows with higher milk yield. Urban and peri-urban dairy production contributes to food security of the population and family income of the farmers’ families, but also provides a job opportunity for otherwise unemployed people. Access to farm land, level of education and access to certain input services such as training, veterinary and credit services were identified as the major constraints for the future development of the dairy sector.     

Characterization of the production system and breeding practices of indigenous goat keepers in Hai district,Northern Tanzania: implications for community-based breeding program

Indigenous breeding practices of the farmers and the livestock production system form the bases for designing community-based breeding programs. The aim of this study was to characterize production system and examine breeding practices of the indigenous goat farmers in Hai district in Northern Tanzania to determine their relevance in establishing a community-based breeding program in the area. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in which information was collected from 160 households randomly selected from 6 villages. Average household herd was 29.2 goats with majority keeping less than 20 goats. Major reasons for keeping goats were income generation, meat and milk production. Controlled mating was practiced mainly using apron and castration. Castration was practiced using traditional methods to control breeding and improve meat quality. Farmers in the study area had large goat flocks and a small buck to doe ratio. Farmers do not have a good understanding of inbreeding and its negative effects but practise other good breeding methods which could impact the productivity of their animals. Diseases and feed shortages were the main constraints to production. Opportunities exist for a community-based breeding program to genetically improve goat productivity.

     

Economic contribution and viability of dairy goats: implications for a breeding programme

To augment the incomes of smallholder farmers in Kenya and consequently improve their nutrition and income, many development organisations and policy makers are increasingly promoting dairy goat farming. Among the key organisations supporting the initiative is Heifer Project International—Kenya (HPIK). However, the economic contribution and viability of dairy goats under the HPIK project have not been studied so far. The aim of the present study was to determine the contribution of dairy goats to household income and the performance of the dairy goat enterprise using gross and net margins from dairy goat farming as an indicator of economic viability. A survey covering 71 farmers was carried out in the Coast, Nyanza, and the Rift Valley provinces of Kenya using a set of pre-tested structured and semi-structured questionnaires. Results showed that, on average, the dairy goat enterprise contributed, correspondingly, about 15.2% and 4.8% to the total livestock and overall household income and was viable. Differences in gross and net margins across agroecological zones were attributed to milk prices. Despite the existence of non-viable enterprises in two of the provinces, the few present suggest the possibility of obtaining reliable incomes from the enterprise. Redoubling of effort or re-orientation of production to match the local and external requirements would, however, be necessary. Costs and revenues were similar across the agroecological zones. Farmers with positive gross margins had better milk and stock sales and vice versa. The success of a dairy goat enterprise is attributed to location and good management. Besides, farmers’ awareness of the market demands within and outside the community is important in establishing production goals and may be crucial to achieving a positive gross margin.     

Variation in village chicken production systems among agro-ecological zones of Zimbabwe

The degree to which village chickens are integrated in the smallholder farming systems differs depending on the socio-economic, cultural and biological factors within each system. The objective of this study was to characterise the village chicken farming systems and identify possible threats to, and opportunities for, local chickens in the agro-ecological zones of Zimbabwe. A pre-tested questionnaire was administered to households randomly selected from five districts, Risitu (n = 97), Hurungwe (n = 56), Gutu (n = 77), Gokwe-South (n = 104) and Beitbridge (n = 37) in eco-zones I–V, respectively. Age of head of household averaged 47 years (SD = 14.3). Land holdings per household averaged 4.82 ha (SD = 3.6). Overall, 17.7 percent of the households ranked livestock as the major source of income compared to 70.8 percent who ranked crops as the main contributor. Chicken flock size averaged 16.7 (SD = 12.4), and the highest flock sizes were observed in eco-zones I and IV. Households owning cattle, goats and other livestock assigned less important ranks to chickens. Chickens were used mainly for the provision of meat and eggs whilst the use of chicken feathers and investment were uncommon practises. Results indicate that more support is necessary for village chickens in the non-cropping regions of the country.     

A survey to identify economic opportunities for smallholder dairy farms in Bangladesh

Identified economic opportunities for planning interventions greatly increase farmers’ compliance with an extension programme. We investigated opportunities for interventions to increase dairy farmers’ income in four areas of Bangladesh, including the districts of Mymensingh, Khulna-Satkhira, Sirajgonj-Pabna and Chittagong. The data were collected from 1440 dairy farms at a one-day visit and were summarized as the difference between management targets and each herd’s calculated management indices. The average number of lactating cows, feed cost as a percentage of income from milk, milk sold as percentage of milk produced, lactating cows as a percentage of mature cows, and lactating cows as a percentage of total cattle varied from 1.5 to 3.4, from 52.5% to 92.1%, from 78.7% to 92.6%, from 81.9% to 86.7% and from 34.3% to 37.7%, respectively. The average age at first calving, calf production interval, lactation length, and milk production were 35.0–44.3 months, 14.0–17.6 months, 249–286 days and 3.5–7.2 litres, respectively, depending on the locality. The average cost for producing 100 litres of milk was 18.9–35.1 US dollars. The production cost increased when daily milk production per cow decreased (r² = 0.43–0.55). Management improvements directed towards increasing average milk production per cow per day, increasing lactation length, decreasing age to first calving, and decreasing calf production interval could expect to yield an average income increase up to a range of 676.3–1730.6 US dollars depending on the milk-producing area.     

基于表型和基因组信息评价北京油鸡保种群保种情况

旨在利用表型和基因组信息对北京油鸡随机交配保种群体近交系数、有效群体大小进行研究,评价北京油鸡保种群体保种情况。本研究以国家级北京油鸡保种场北京油鸡2019年随机交配保种群体40只鸡为研究对象,对表型记录进行整理,同时利用基因组SNP信息,使用PLINK软件分别计算基于ROH的近交系数（F_ROH）、基于纯合基因型的近交系数（F_HOM）、基于联合配子之间相关性的近交系数（F_UNI）;使用GCTA和R软件计算基于基因组关系G矩阵的近交系数（F_GRM）;使用SNeP软件估计北京油鸡历史世代的有效群体大小;使用NeEstimator软件估计基于连锁不平衡方法的当前世代的有效群体大小;使用R软件的PerformanceAnalytics包对F_ROH、F_HOM、F_GRM和F_UNI等不同算法所得近交系数进行相关性分析,评价北京油鸡的保种情况。结果显示,1979—2019年以来,北京油鸡保种群体凤冠、胫羽、五趾等典型的外貌特征明显且百分比稳定;保种群有效群体大小从98世代前的595逐渐降至13世代前的176;2019年北京油鸡随机交配保种群体F_ROH为0.079 8,与F_GRM显著相关（P<0.01）,且相关系数为0.45;除此之外,F_HOM与F_GRM,F_HOM与F_UNI以及F_GRM与F_UNI之间也存在较高的线性相关。北京油鸡1979—2019年以来近交系数增长缓慢,国家级北京油鸡保种场随机交配保种群体的保种工作是十分有效的。基于目前情况,本研究建议每年随机选取一定数量的北京油鸡随机交配保种群体的个体,进行全基因组二代重测序检测,有利于对保种状况进行动态监控,以便随时调整保种工作方案。     

Evaluation of biological and economic efficiency of smallholder pig production systems in North Vietnam

This study evaluates smallholder pig production systems in North Vietnam, comparing a semi-intensive system near a town with good market access, where a Vietnamese improved breed has replaced the indigenous pig breed, and an extensive system away from town, where the indigenous breed still prevails. Fieldwork was conducted in 64 households in four villages. Repeated farm visits yielded 234 structured interviews. Data were analysed by linear models and non-parametric tests. Production inputs and outputs were quantified, and feed use efficiency and economic efficiency were assessed. The gross margin was higher for semi-intensive production with the improved breed, while the benefit–cost ratio was higher under extensive conditions with the indigenous breed. The net benefit did not differ between systems. Twenty-four per cent of farmers yielded a negative net benefit. In one village under extensive conditions, live weight output from indigenous sows with crossbred offspring compared positively with the output from semi-intensive production with improved genotypes, but was associated with high inputs, making production inefficient. Results indicate that improved genotypes might not be an efficient production alternative for saving-oriented production with limited resource supply. Suitability of evaluation parameters, farmers’ production aims, and factors impacting the production success in different systems are discussed.     

An economic opportunity survey of small dairy farms in Paraguay

Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) in 15 small farms and an economic opportunity survey (EOS) in 13 were carried out in the Cordillera basin of Paraguay to identify production constraints and the best ways to achieve economic gain. PRA showed farmers’ perception was that nutrition was the main constraint. The EOS showed that over 70% of the milk produced was sold in the neighbourhood. The average number of adult cows (lactating and dry cows) per farm ranged from 15 to 120, of which 62.2% to 80% were lactating cows. Milk production per cow on one day ranged from 8.5 to 18.2 litres and average lactation length was more than 300 days. Average age at first calving varied from 31 to 39 months. The highest economic opportunity was observed for increased milk production. Age at first calving and calf production interval were also found to be important constraints. Ultrasonography survey of the ovaries 20 maiden heifers over six months showed inadequate activity. Partially budgeted interventions were instituted to improve nutrition and management of maiden heifers, in-calf cows and those in early lactation. More forages were grown. PRA and EOS were shown to be useful tools in identifying production constraints.     

Economic performance of small ruminants in mixed-farming systems of Southern Ethiopia

This study evaluates the household income contribution and the profitability of traditional small ruminant enterprises in two mixed-farming systems of southern Ethiopia (viz. Adilo and Kofele). Small ruminant production is an integral part of mixed systems in the Ethiopian highlands. The assessment of the current economic performance of small ruminants indicates production-related opportunities and constraints and provides baseline data against which the success of future interventions can be measured. Detailed information on economic parameters was gathered through a 1-year period of flock and household monitoring (155 households) between September 2005 and August 2006. Structured surveys were conducted with the participating households to elicit information on income-expense details of small ruminant and other agricultural enterprises. Small ruminants contributed considerably to cash income and to a limited extent to human nutrition especially when other sources were in short supply. The annual profit per animal ranged from 20 to 37 Ethiopian Birr. The return to capital was 17% in Kofele and 29% in Adilo, with both values vastly exceeding the national interest rate. The sale of small ruminants contributed to 39% and 23% of total farm cash income among small ruminant keepers in Adilo and Kofele, respectively. Sale prices are highest before holidays. Researches should target at how to use available feed resources in a timely and cost-effective fashion to make use of the seasonal market opportunities.     

藏北羌塘牧民家庭人口特征和收入构成之间的关系

为探讨牧民家庭人口特征和收入构成之间的关系，通过半结构式访谈调查了藏北羌塘高寒草甸、高寒草原和荒漠草原区682户牧民，比较了其家庭规模、劳动力、抚养比、草场面积、放牧强度、家庭收入及其多样性的差异，结合多元线性回归评价了家庭人口特征对收入构成的影响。结果显示：羌塘地区牧民家庭规模大（5.3人·户^-1）、抚养比高（0.62）、劳动力充足（3人·户^-1）但受教育年限短（2.3年），高度依赖政策性收入；高寒草甸区牧民家庭规模、劳动力数量及受教育年限、抚养比和放牧强度等指标显著高于高寒草原和荒漠草原区（P<0.05），后两者之间无显著差异；荒漠草原区牧民家庭草场面积和政策性收入较高（P<0.05）；家庭规模、文盲率和抚养比是影响高寒草原和荒漠草原牧民收入构成的主要因子，人口特征对高寒草甸牧民收入影响不显著。综上所述，建议分区精准施策以提高牧民生计。     

Characteristics of the smallholder free-range pig production system in western Kenya

Free-range pig farming is common amongst the small-scale farmers in western Kenya. In order to determine the characteristics of this type of production system, a cross-sectional questionnaire survey on farm characteristics and management was collected from 182 farmers in Busia District. The mean farm size was one acre, while the mean number of pigs per farm was 3.6. Pigs were mainly kept as a source of income (98%) and majority were of cross breed variety (64%). The production systems included farrow to weaner (12%), porker to finisher (36%), and mixed (46%). Sixty five percent (65%) of the pigs were tethered and housing was not provided in 61% of the farms. Most of the feeds were sourced locally. Lack of castration and delayed weaning of pigs was observed on 49% and 30% of the farms, respectively. The main production constraints included pig diseases (81%) and high cost or lack of feed (81%). Haematopinus suis infestations and worm infections were considered to be the most important diseases by 71% and 55% of the farmers, respectively. Farmers had moderate knowledge on parasitic disease diagnosis with 31% and 62% not having a history of either deworming or spraying pigs with acaricides, respectively. Marketing constraints were common amongst the farmers and included poor prices and inadequate market information. In conclusion, the production system was characterized as low-input with an income objective. Future research and development approaches should focus on the integration of free-range farmers into the country’s market chains through access to extension services.     

Smallholder goat breeding and flock management practices in the central rift valley of Ethiopia

The study was conducted in the central rift valley of Ethiopia to define Arsi-Bale goat keepers’ breeding objectives and breeding practices and to describe flock management practices and rate of inbreeding in Arsi-Bale goat population. Two-stage sampling techniques were employed to select study sites and 202 respondents. Semistructured questionnaire and group discussion were used to collect the required information. Data were analyzed using statistical package for social science. Rate of inbreeding in the population and indices were also calculated. On average, each respondent holds around 12 goats in which 30.7, 66.6 and 2.7% were males, females and castrates, respectively. The most important purpose of goat production in the study area was for milk utilization. Farmers have multiple breeding objectives and they considered both subjective and objective selection criteria with slightly more emphasis on morphological characteristics for buck selection than replacement doe selection. Only 39.1% (n = 79) of respondents have their own breeding bucks. None of the respondents practiced controlled mating. Average rate of inbreeding in the population was around 0.20. Arsi-Bale goats are found to be adaptive to the prevailing condition. Therefore, any breed improvement strategy to be designed or implemented in the study area and other similar areas should consider important traditional breeding practices.