Bayesian methods for estimating pathogen prevalence within groups of animals from faecal-pat sampling

Pathogens such as Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Campylobacter spp. have been implicated in outbreaks of food poisoning in the UK and elsewhere. Domestic animals and wildlife are important reservoirs for both of these agents, and cross-contamination from faeces is believed to be responsible for many human outbreaks. Appropriate parameterisation of quantitative microbial-risk models requires representative data at all levels of the food chain. Our focus in this paper is on the early stages of the food chain-specifically, sampling issues which arise at the farm level. We estimated animal–pathogen prevalence from faecal-pat samples using a Bayesian method which reflected the uncertainties inherent in the animal-level prevalence estimates. (Note that prevalence here refers to the percentage of animals shedding the bacteria of interest). The method offers more flexibility than traditional, classical approaches: it allows the incorporation of prior belief, and permits the computation of a variety of distributional and numerical summaries, analogues of which often are not available through a classical framework. The Bayesian technique is illustrated with a number of examples reflecting the effects of a diversity of assumptions about the underlying processes. The technique appears to be both robust and flexible, and is useful when defecation rates in infected and uninfected groups are unequal, where population size is uncertain, and also where the microbiological-test sensitivity is imperfect. We also investigated the determination of the sample size necessary for determining animal-level prevalence from pat samples to within a pre-specified degree of accuracy.     

Susceptibility to IVM in a field strain of Haemonchus contortus subjected to four treatments in a closed sheep-goat flock in Kenya

Susceptibility to IVM (IVM) of “strain A” Haemonchus contortus which had been exposed to IVM four times over a 2-year period was compared to IVM susceptibility of “strain C” H. contortus which had no prior field exposure to IVM, by in vivo and in vitro methods. In vivo, the percentage reduction in faecal egg counts (FEC) and the total worm counts (TWC) were compared between control animals (lambs and kids) and animals treated with low dose IVM (20 μg/kg). In vitro susceptibility to IVM was evaluated by larval migration inhibition (LMI) after the two strains of H. contortus were exposed to different concentrations of IVM. The dose response, measured as the proportion of larvae inhibited from migrating, was used to estimate LD₅₀. Although differences in response to IVM in the in vivo determinations were not significant, “strain A” H. contortus had a significantly higher LD₅₀ than “strain C” in the LMI assay. Coincident with the conduct of the in vivo experiment, it was observed that “strain A” H. contortus established and survived better than “strain C” in the control lambs.     

The use of even-chain alkanes sprayed onto herbage as rate of passage markers in goats

An experiment was conducted with Saanen goats fed fresh grass ad libitum to compare ⁵¹Cr-mordanted fibre and even-chain alkanes sprayed onto either grass leaves or stems to estimate faecal output, total mean retention time (TMRT) and parameters obtained from faecal marker concentration curves, such as k₁ (slow rate of passage), k₂ (fast rate of passage) and transit time (TT). ⁵¹Cr-mordanted grass showed the lowest fractional rates of passage (k₁ and k₂) and hence the largest value of TMRT. There were not significant (P > 0.05) differences between even-chain alkanes sprayed onto leaves or stems for k₂, TT and TMRT, but k₁ estimates were higher (P < 0.05) for stems than for sprayed leaves. Despite the marker used, TMRT values were negatively correlated with the level of dry matter intake (r = − 0.81, − 0.80 and − 0.80 for ⁵¹Cr-mordanted fibre and even-chain alkanes adsorbed onto leaves or stems, respectively). Average faecal outputs estimated from faecal concentrations of ⁵¹Cr-mordanted fibre and even-chain alkanes were not different from the actual outputs but there were differences between markers in the accuracy of estimation. The highest mean square prediction error (MSPE) and the poorest correlation between observed and estimated faecal output values corresponded to even-chain alkanes adsorbed onto stems. Values estimated using ⁵¹Cr-mordanted fibre and even-chain alkanes adsorbed onto leaves were significantly correlated with faecal outputs (r = 0.94 and r = 0.92, respectively), with MSPE being greater for the latter marker.     

球虫(菌)清缓释剂防治家兔球虫病和大肠杆菌病效果分析

目的寻求一种高效、优质药物防治家兔球虫病和大肠杆菌病。方法(1)60只健康兔分4组,第1、2组分别注射球虫清缓释剂、球菌清缓释剂,第3、4组分别用伯氨喹啉、地克珠利 氟哌酸拌料日常饲喂,于d 2、5、7、15、30口服球虫孢子化卵囊,隔10 d取粪查卵囊,观察保护率。(2)球虫病兔20只分为第1、3组,球虫病及大肠杆菌病兔20只分为第2、4组,分别用上述方法给药比较治愈率。(3)日常饲养兔150只分3组,分别为注射球虫清缓释剂、伯氨喹啉拌料日常饲喂、对照组,1、2、3个月后查卵囊,观察转阴率、OPG值、死亡率等。(4)幼兔100只分5组,前4组用方法(1)给药,第5组为对照组,比较增重率、饲料转化率、节省防治费率。结果(1)兔注射球虫清缓释剂、球菌清缓释剂后,在d 2~20时,攻击球虫,其保护率均为100%(3/3)。在d 30时,攻击球虫,其保护率均为66.7%(2/3);而口服伯氨喹啉,地克珠利 氟哌酸防治的兔,在d 2~5时攻击球虫,保护率为0,在d 10时,其保护率均为33.3%(1/3),在d 20~30时,其保护率均为66.7%(2/3)。(2)球虫病和大肠杆菌病兔(1、2组)注射球虫清缓释剂、球菌清缓释剂后d 5~60,球虫病、大肠杆菌病的治愈率均为100%;口服伯氨喹啉、地克珠利 氟哌酸(3、4组)后d 5,治愈率均为0,d 20~60时,治愈率为70.0%~90.0%。(3)球虫清缓释剂组在1~2个月时,球虫卵囊减少率及转阴率均为100%,在3个月时,球虫卵囊减少率为98.9%,转阴率为94.0%,存活率为100%。伯氨喹啉组1~3个月,球虫卵囊减少率及转阴率分别为64.4%~89.8%及33.0%~91.2%,死亡率为22.0%~28.0%,存活率为72.0%~78.0%。对照组1~3个月,球虫卵囊增加78.0%~126.0%,死亡率为46.0%~62.0%,存活率为38.0%~54.0%。(4)注射球虫(菌)清缓释剂比口服伯氨喹啉、地克珠利 氟哌酸及对照组,兔的增重率分别提高71.7%、76.1%、374.6%和69.8%、74.1%、369.3%,节省防治费75%。应用球虫(菌)清缓释剂防治球虫病、大肠杆菌病兔10.5万只,获得经济效益108.67万元(包括增重效益、挽回死亡兔损失、减少饲料费和节省防治费四项)。结论球虫(菌)清缓释剂能安全、高效、经济、方便地控制家兔球虫病和大肠杆菌病的发生,保护幼兔安全度过球虫病和大肠杆菌病高危期。     

Pyrantel resistance in two herds of donkey in the UK

Resistance to currently available anthelmintics is a serious phenomenon which is prevalent globally. Cyathostomins are one of the major parasites, and are of primary concern in donkeys. There have been reports of emerging resistance to pyrantel, but the status of pyrantel resistance in donkey populations in the UK is largely unknown. This report investigates pyrantel resistance in two geographically isolated donkey herds in the South West of England. The first herd had suspected pyrantel resistance, with already established resistance to other anthelmintics. In the second herd the efficacy of pyrantel was not suspected at the time the study took place. Faecal Egg Count Reduction Test (FECRT) was carried out, revealing large scale resistance. Eighty one percent of the first herd and 73% of the second herd had a FEC of less than 95% after treatment, and anthelmintic resistance was confirmed using the World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology guidelines. These findings indicate that anthelmintic resistance to pyrantel exists in both tested donkey populations and illustrate the continuing development of resistance through different classes of chemotherapeutics.     

A comparison of the FECPAK and Mini-FLOTAC faecal egg counting techniques

Faecal egg counts (FECs) are used for detecting and quantifying nematode infections and are the basis for determining drug efficacy and anthelmintic resistance in faecal egg count reduction tests (FECRTs). Currently, several FEC techniques are available for detecting and quantifying eggs of sheep nematodes. A comparison of the egg counts from the FECPAK (with a minimum detection limit of 30 eggs per gram (epg)) and Mini-FLOTAC (with a minimum detection limit of 5 epg) showed better diagnostic performance with Mini-FLOTAC in terms of measurement error (level of over- or under-estimation of FEC) and precision (variability in FEC). A tendency to under-estimate FEC was observed with the FECPAK particularly at egg densities of less than 500 epg. It is concluded that Mini-FLOTAC is a reliable diagnostic tool offering reduced measurement error and a higher level of precision.     

浙江近岸海域细菌学分析

调查分别于1998年5～6月和9～10月进行2个航次,对浙江近岸海域30个站位的表层和底层海水样品进行了细菌学检测.结果表明,第一航次以浙中海域的粪大肠菌群和异氧菌总数最高,第二航次以宁波海域粪大肠菌群最高,而异氧菌总数以三门湾最高.两个航次表层和底层海水粪大肠菌群超标率最高为16.7%,异氧菌总数超标率均达89.3%以上.第一、二航次表层海水粪大肠杆菌单项污染指数平均值分别为0.229±0.452和0.375±0.630,异氧菌总数单项污染指数平均值分别为8.6±11.178和12.8±18.796.底层海水中粪大肠杆菌单项污染指数仅在第一航次宁波近岸的JN-1108站位超标;异氧菌总数单项污染指数第一、二航次最大值分别为37.0和18.0, 也出现在宁波近岸的JN-1108站.分析显示,粪大肠菌群与异氧细菌总数存在一定的正相关关系,其相关系数r2=0.34.结果表明,浙江近岸海域已明显受到异氧菌的污染, 宁波近岸海域已遭到粪大肠杆菌和异氧菌的污染.     

Use of Low Radioactive Rare—earth Waste for Sewage Treatment

1　Introduction　　 Our country has about 80 percent rare- earth reserve of the world.Since 1 980 ,great success has beenmade in exploitation and utilization of rare- earth resource〔1-3〕.Because there are many kinds of rare- earthin our country and the components are complex,a large amount of hazardous“three- wastes”are producedin the process of mineral production.Waste residues are the most among“three- wastes” and contain ra-dioactive elements Th,U and Re.Safety disposal of rare- ear…     

Fragmentation of leaf litter by a natural population of the millipede Julus scandinavius (Latzel 1884)

Summary The rate and degree of fragmentation of leaf litter by Julus scandinavius in a Sycamore/ash wood in Cheshire, England, were determined from the ratio of surface area of the leaf diet consumed by all individuals of each instar during the period when they were present on the surface area of leaf materials in the faecal pellets. Generally, the rate of fragmentation of leaf litter decreased in the series young instars sexed immature instars mature instars. The total degree of increase in the fragmentation of leaf litter by the population was 72×10⁶.     

Litter decomposition and faunal activity in Mediterranean forest soils: effects of N content and the moss layer

Accumulation of soil carbon is mainly controlled by the balance between litter production and litter decomposition. Usually In Mediterranean forests there are contrasting conditions in the distribution of faunal activity and the moss layer that may have different effects on litter decomposition. Decomposition and faunal activity were studied by exposing litter of contrasting quality (Pinus halepensis Mill. and Quercus ilex L.) for 3.5 yr in three Mediterranean pine forests of the eastern Iberian Peninsula. The effects of mosses on decomposition and on faunal activity were studied by exposing P. halepensis litter either on moss patches or directly on the forest floor. Faecal pellet production was used as an indication of faunal activity. Water availability or soil characteristics seem to limit faunal activities in the drier sites. Faecal pellets were not found during the first stages of decomposition and in all sites they appeared when about a 30% of the initial litter had decomposed. Under wet conditions faecal pellet production was very high and a mass balance suggested that soil faunal activity may result in a net flow of organic matter from the lower organic horizons to the surface Oi horizon. Mosses slightly increased mass loss of pine litter probably as a consequence of high potentially mineralizable nitrogen in the Oa horizon of moss patches and also, perhaps, as a consequence of the higher moisture content measured in the Oi horizon needles sampled among the mosses. In contrast, moss patches reduced faunal activity. The effect of litter quality on mass loss was not always significant, suggesting an interaction between litter quality and site conditions. During the first stages of decomposition there was N immobilisation in P. halepensis litter (poorer in N) and N release from Q. ilex litter (richer in N). In conclusion, in these forests soil microclimate and/or N availability appear to be more important controlling litter decomposition than the distribution of faunal activity.