Human-Wildlife Conflict Pattern and Suggested Mitigation Strategy in the Pamirs of Northwestern China

Predation of livestock by wildlife and the retribution responses it elicits can have strong negative impacts on both people and carnivores. A questionnaire survey designed to investigate human-carnivore conflicts was completed by 66 herders from local communities within Taxkorgan Nature Reserve, located in the Pamir and Karkorum mountains of Northwestern China. A total of 127 livestock predation events with associated predator identification were reported and 583 livestock were killed. Wolves (315 livestock) and dholes (129 livestock) were responsible for the largest number of livestock losses. Livestock depredation significantly differed between guarded and unguarded management strategies. Positive relationships between loss and the total amount of the major livestock species, as well as the total loss and total amount of livestock, were detected. Use of guard dogs did not affect the likelihood of carnivore attacks, whereas keeping livestock in pens at night or all day did reduce the number of depredation events. Depredation showed significant seasonal variation (month of occurrence) for large carnivores. Numbers of goat, sheep, and cattle predated also varied by month, but did not for yak because of different husbandry practices. No compensation policy has yet been established in this area, but if it were to be developed in the future, 83% of interviewed herders would require compensation in cash, whereas 14% of herders would prefer replacement livestock. Our study offers suggestions to mitigate livestock depredation in this region of China. To prevent livestock depredations, local herders should mainly prevent wolves and dholes because they cause most livestock killings, and employ guarded grazing practice. Managers could make herders keep a reasonable number of livestock to raise grazing efficiency, introduce suitable sheepdog breeds, and provide essential dog training as useful aids to herders to increase livestock-guarding effectiveness.     

Simulation of Pastoral Management in Mongolia: An Integrated System Dynamics Model

High grazing density has given rise to concerns about grassland degradation in periurban areas in Mongolia. Moreover, whether livestock can increase without harming the vegetation in these areas in Mongolia and what types of policy measures should be implemented is not documented. As such, this study develops an integrated simulation model of grassland biomass, animal growth, and livestock management for a forest-steppe area in northern Mongolia and conducts a simulation on long-term changes. The simulations show that, under current conditions, the number of animals will continue to increase, while the grassland biomass will decrease. Cooperative grassland management would lead to an increase in grassland biomass and higher incomes for herders. Furthermore, herders’ population changes would have a significant impact on animal density adjustments, while the effects of conventional economic measures, such as a tax on animals, would be limited if all other conditions remain constant. Consequently, the synergistic effects of herder population changes and cooperative management can contribute toward maintaining the herders’ income while preserving the grassland ecosystem.     

Local breeds,livelihoods and livestock keepers’ rights in South Asia

In South Asia, and throughout the developing world, the predominant official approach to livestock development has been improvement of production by means of upgrading local breeds via cross-breeding with exotic animals. This strategy has led to the replacement and dilution of locally adapted breeds with non-native ones. This has resulted in an alarming loss that has been estimated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations to amount to one breed every two weeks. Based on selected case studies this paper argues that development strategies using locally adapted breeds and species are much more likely to benefit livestock keepers whilst also maintaining domestic animal diversity and bearing a smaller ecological footprint. It also analyses the rationale for “Livestock Keepers’ Rights”, a principle that grew out of the struggle of traditional livestock keepers to retain control over their production resources, such as grazing areas and breeding stock, in the face of unfavourable policy environments.     

资本禀赋、政策感知与牧民减畜意愿——以巴音布鲁克世界自然遗产地为例

牧民的减畜行为是遏制草原生态环境退化最有效的方法之一。本研究基于巴音布鲁克世界自然遗产地187户牧民的实地调查数据,运用有序Probit回归模型分析了牧民的资本禀赋与政策感知对减畜意愿的影响。研究发现:牧民的金融资本、物质资本、自然资本和人力资本对其减畜意愿的影响不显著,文化资本对牧民的减畜意愿具有正向影响,社会资本对牧民的减畜意愿具有负向影响;政策监督力度通过影响牧民对“违规成本”的心理预期来抑制超载放牧行为,补助金额能否弥补减畜带来的经济损失是影响牧民减畜意愿的关键所在。基于研究结果提出以下建议:加强草原生态保护政策的宣传和引导力度,并结合当地牧民的风俗习惯与生活特点制定合理的监管措施,充分发挥村规民约等社会规范对超载放牧行为的约束作用;积极推动牧民的生计转型,减小对草原和畜牧业的依赖程度。     

平山湖温性荒漠草地草畜平衡现状及发展措施

2008年通过对张掖市平山湖蒙古族乡草地、农牧业生产经营情况的入户调查,全乡有天然草地8.67万hm^2,可利用草地6.38万hm^2。草地理论载畜量为2.03万羊单位,实际存栏6.843万羊单位,超载4.813万羊单位,达237%。由于草地严重超载过牧,造成温性荒漠草地退化加剧,裸露草地数量增加,水土流失严重,草原生态环境日益恶化,使当地农牧民生产、生活受到严重的影响。必须通过调整优化畜群结构,使饲养牲畜公母比例由1∶1.4提高到1∶2.5-3.0,改变传统的全放牧饲养方式,加快畜群周转,达到草畜平衡,实现草地畜牧业可持续发展。     

Monitoring of Livestock Grazing Effects on Bureau of Land Management Land

Public land management agencies, such as the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), are charged with managing rangelands throughout the western United States for multiple uses, such as livestock grazing and conservation of sensitive species and their habitats. Monitoring of condition and trends of these rangelands, particularly with respect to effects of livestock grazing, provides critical information for effective management of these multiuse landscapes. We therefore investigated the availability of livestock grazing-related quantitative monitoring data and qualitative region-specific Land Health Standards (LHS) data across BLM grazing allotments in the western United States. We then queried university and federal rangeland science experts about how best to prioritize rangeland monitoring activities. We found that the most commonly available monitoring data were permittee-reported livestock numbers and season-of-use data (71% of allotments) followed by repeat photo points (58%), estimates of forage utilization (52%), and, finally, quantitative vegetation measurements (37%). Of the 57% of allotments in which LHS had been evaluated as of 2007, the BLM indicated 15% had failed to meet LHS due to livestock grazing. A full complement of all types of monitoring data, however, existed for only 27% of those 15%. Our data inspections, as well as conversations with rangeland experts, indicated a need for greater emphasis on collection of grazing-related monitoring data, particularly ground cover. Prioritization of where monitoring activities should be focused, along with creation of regional monitoring teams, may help improve monitoring. Overall, increased emphasis on monitoring of BLM rangelands will require commitment at multiple institutional levels.     

肃南县退牧还草工程饲料粮补助的问题和建议

肃南县实施退牧还草生态工程三年以来，取得了较为显著的生态、经济和社会效益，促进了畜牧业生产结构、牧区生产和生活方式的改变。但饲料粮补助存在标准偏低、资金下拨滞后、补助方式单一等问题。针对上述问题，提出了以下措施：1）提高饲料粮补助标准；2）适当调整补助方式，补助资金统筹安排；3）加快补助资金的下拔速度；4）加快后续产业的开发。     

2005-2017年青海三江源区草地家畜承载力时空格局研究

位于青藏高原腹地的青海三江源是全球气候变化的启动区和脆弱区,是我国国家生态安全屏障。为有效遏制该地区高寒草地生态退化,在2005—2017年先后实施了生态保护和建设一期工程、二期工程。本研究应用基于卫星遥感模型估算的植被净初级生产力及家畜存栏统计数据,对三江源生态保护和建设工程实施以来草地理论载畜量及载畜压力时空变化及其原因进行了分析。结果表明：2005—2017年间三江源区理论载畜量呈现不显著降低趋势,较之前一期工程期间,二期工程实施期间理论载畜量降低了6.75%;一期工程实施期间现实载畜总量2 041.39万羊单位,载畜压力指数1.38;而二期工程实施期间,可能由于气候暖干化使得理论载畜量降低,以及实施减畜政策与补偿的不对等关系,导致现实载畜总量增至2 216.40万羊单位,载畜压力指数增至1.60。研究结果表明生态保护和建设工程仍然面临着艰巨而又复杂的挑战。     

How could herd mobility be used to manage resources and livestock grazing in semi-arid rangeland commons?

Pastoralists in Namaqualand, South Africa, use herd mobility to manage livestock and rangeland resources. However, their socioeconomic conditions and ecological landscapes are changing and we explore the options that are available for pastoralists to respond to these changes. This paper presents five possible scenarios for managing livestock in rangeland commons in semi-arid Namaqualand and outlines some of the major advantages and disadvantages associated with each scenario. Scenarios in response to drivers of change include (1) maintaining the status quo with an assumption that current mobility practices are adapted to local environments, (2) integrating new lands into the existing commons for use by mobile pastoralists, (3) using existing lands under existing mobile pastoralism conditions but introducing grazing reserves for use in times of drought, (4) amalgamating herds into larger units under the care of skilled herders, and (5) developing commercial-scale farms for single-occupancy owners because government might be pressured to further promote black commercial farmers to deracialise the commercial farming sector in South Africa. We consider these scenarios as starting points for discussions on future management options that pastoralists in Namaqualand may wish to consider as the managers of rangeland commons.     

藏南农牧交错带农牧互作模式下土地利用效益耦合度分析

农牧耦合是提升农牧交错带生态系统综合效益的有效途径之一。研究采用土地利用耦合模型,定量分析了西藏藏南地区“牧繁农育”和“农草牧补”两种农牧耦合模式土地利用社会经济效益和生态环境效益的耦合度。结果表明,2008-2016年“牧繁农育”模式的土地利用生态环境效益和社会经济效益均呈逐渐增加的趋势,“农草牧补”模式的土地利用生态环境效益虽呈增加趋势,但社会经济效益处于波动状的稳定状态;虽然“牧繁农育”模式和“农草牧补”模式均处于协调发展状态,但“牧繁农育”土地利用社会经济效益与生态环境效益较“农草牧补”随年际的变化具有相对稳定性,这为类似地区定量评价农牧耦合模型效益提供了范式。     

Vulnerability and Adaptation of Livestock Producers to Climate Variability and Change

Rangeland-based animal husbandry has been frequently exposed to the vagaries of weather. While the current rates of climate variability are unprecedented in arid and semiarid regions, climate change is expected to put further pressure on rangelands with medium- and poor-quality forages and increase the vulnerability of households who mainly depend on livestock production. Therefore, it is imperative to ensure that livestock producers increase their resilience to climate variability or change. However, few field-based studies have focused on simultaneous investigation of both vulnerability and adaptation of livestock keepers to climate-related risks. To fill this gap, a field-based research study was conducted in southwest Iran. A survey of 274 herder families, selected using a cluster sampling technique, revealed low, medium and high levels of vulnerability, which were principally distinguished by various degrees of exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. Further, this study identified the main adaptation strategies employed by the herders of this region (i.e., purchasing fodder; rotational grazing; raising a mixed-herd, on-farm occupation; and postharvest grazing). Results indicated that most herder families applied traditional adaptation strategies in response to climate variability. Findings revealed that herders had to reduce their livestock due to low adaptability. Loan term, purchasing insurance, level of exposure, income, experience, response efficacy, and knowledge were the major determinants of the herders’ adaptation decisions. To increase the resilience of livestock producers against climate change, restructuring traditional livestock production systems, producing participatory knowledge and information for sustainable management of rangelands, and designing or redesigning effective adaptation strategies are required.     

The effect of grazing management on livestock exposure to parasites via the faecal–oral route

In grazing systems, heterogeneous distributions of forage resources and faeces result in localised accumulations of nutrients and parasites (both macroparasites and microparasites), creating trade-offs between the costs of exposure to infestation or infection and the benefits of nutrient intake. Each contact between livestock and faeces in the environment is a potential parasite/pathogen transmission event. Thus, herbivores must make foraging decisions in complex environments which will affect their intake of both nutrients and parasites. However, the pattern of forage and faecal resources in agricultural environments will also be affected by the grazing management system in place. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of grazing management on the risk of infection/infestation to livestock. We used a spatially explicit individual based stochastic foraging model to simulate livestock contact (both grazing and investigative) with faeces in the environment. The model was parameterised to simulate cattle grazing under three types of grazing management: set stock (i.e. where sward growth and cattle intake are in equilibrium in a single field); a two pasture rotation grazing system with increasing number of rotations; and a rotational grazing system with two rotations and increasing subdivisions of the pasture. Overall the amount of cattle contact with faecal-contaminated patches was similar in both set stocking and rotational grazing scenarios, suggesting no difference in the risk of infection or infestation between the different systems. However, the timing and absolute amounts of peak contact varied greatly indicating that different grazing management systems expose livestock to risks of different types of parasites at different times of the grazing season. Intensive rotational systems with small pasture blocks (especially the first grazing period) maximised livestock contact with fresh faeces, and thus exposure to microparasites (e.g. bacterial pathogens). Livestock re-entering pasture blocks in rotational systems and set stocked livestock had the highest contact with old faeces and thus have a greater risk of macroparasite transmission (gastrointestinal nematodes). This study highlights how livestock management affects the highly dynamic interaction between livestock and distributions of parasites in the environment and thus the levels of livestock exposure to parasites and pathogens via the faecal–oral route.     

Vegetation gradients around cattleposts in the eastern mountains of Lesotho

The grasslands of the mountains in eastern Lesotho support large numbers of sheep, angora goats and other livestock during the summer, during which they are corralled nightly by herders at cattleposts. Few studies, however, have quantified the impact of grazing on the composition and structure of the mountain grasslands. Gradients of grazing and trampling intensity related to distance from 23 cattleposts in the subalpine and alpine belts (2 650–3 175 m above sea level) were examined to describe the long-term effects of livestock on unpalatable dwarf shrubs, bare area and plant species composition. The potential for shrub invasion and bare areas (low herbaceous cover) to develop was highest near cattleposts. Species composition also changed significantly along the grazing gradient, accompanied by a shift in dominants from grazing-sensitive to grazing-resistant grasses and shrubs. Species either decreased or increased monotonically along the grazing gradient or had an intermediate, unimodal response. The relative positions of species’ centroids along the grazing gradient were used to quantify their grazing sensitivity on a scale from 10 (most sensitive) to 0 (most resistant), which confirmed and contradicted previous classifications of their grazing responses. Basic ecological research on this important mountain grazing and catchment system is recommended.     

Restoration Practices Affect Alpine Meadow Ecosystem Coupling and Functions

Degradation of alpine meadows on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau is an important issue for ecological science, policy making, and the welfare of local herders. Destruction of alpine meadows results from degeneration of vegetation and soil systems and from the mechanical decoupling of the environment, grassland, livestock, and herders and, subsequently, discordance among these subsystems. In this study, systematic integration of restoration techniques based on the grassland agroecosystems coupling theory was developed for the management and restoration of degraded alpine meadows. To test the effectiveness of these integrated restoration techniques, we conducted restoration trials that included grazing management, enclosed, fertilization, overseeding, and sward ripping by evaluating the ecosystem coupling of soil, plant and livestock, and ecosystem functions. The results of this study suggest that comprehensive restoration practices include grazing and agronomy techniques (fertilizer, overseeding, and sward ripping) that result in the greatest level of ecosystem coupling, while the single restoration practice leads to poorly coupled ecosystems. Restoration practice changes in ecosystem functionality are positively related to changes in ecosystem coupling. Our results highlight the importance of diversified restoration practices for facilitating ecological coupling and functioning in the degraded alpine meadow. The restorative scheme also bridges the gap between restoration theory and practice by providing guidelines for herders and policy makers for the urgent task of restoring degraded alpine meadows.     

海南州草地牲畜超载与调控对策

对青海省海南州草地牲畜的超载状况进行了分析研究，提出了海南州草地牲畜的调控对策是：教育和组织群众，自觉按草畜平衡原则组织生产；挖掘生产内部潜力，调整畜群结构；增加科技与生产投入，提高草畜生产能力；建立草原监测制度，为确定合理载畜量提供科学依据。     

Shifting Cattle Producer Beliefs on Stocking and Invasive Forage: Implications for Grassland Conservation

To advance the dialogue to define sustainable working landscapes, it is essential to include the perceptions, knowledge, and factors guiding decision making. We surveyed livestock producers in the Grand River Grasslands region of southern Iowa and northern Missouri, United States, to gain insight into key factors shaping decision making and perspectives on effective management practices in the eastern Great Plains, focusing in particular on demographic and social change and producer willingness to reduce stocking rate as a conservation practice. First, a longitudinal evaluation of livestock producer demographics in 2007 and 2017 revealed individuals were older and were renting grazing land to a greater extent than in 2007. Second, when making land management decisions, producers in 2017 focused on economic concerns more than environmental concerns compared with more balanced views in 2007. For those who prioritized the environment over economics, this prioritization was related to both higher levels of education and a willingness to reduce stocking rate (livestock production) if there is a positive conservation outcome. In contrast, a lower willingness to reduce stocking was associated with increasing rental acreage and prevalence of an invasive cool-season grass that responds favorably to heavy grazing (tall fescue, Schedonorus arundinaceus Schreb.). Regardless, about 37% of cattle producers representing ∼ 40% of the land area surveyed were at least moderately willing to reduce stocking rates to achieve a conservation outcome. In conclusion, our findings suggest that producers’ need to gain income from livestock may limit the willingness to enact a conservation practice similar to reduced stocking rates. However, there is clearly conservation receptiveness from a segment of the producer community, which indicates potential for improved conservation.     

Threshold Distinctions Between Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Pastoral Systems Along a Continuous Climatic Gradient

In equilibrium environments where rainfall is relatively stable, grazing animal–vegetation dynamics are density-dependent; it is therefore appropriate to calculate carrying capacities and use them to define sustainable animal populations. In contrast, nonequilibrium environments are characterized by fluctuations in characteristics such as rainfall, resulting in fluctuations in plant biomass and in the corresponding carrying capacity. Herders adapt to such environments by moving opportunistically to pastures with better conditions. Studies since the 1990s have significantly improved our understanding of the continuity and integration of equilibrium and nonequilibrium systems. However, it remains unclear how and where such continuous, integrated rangeland systems result in qualitatively different land use patterns by local herders along a climatic gradient. Here, we developed a simple model that uses key environmental factors to predict a threshold representing the boundary between equilibrium and nonequilibrium land use systems, and we used an area of Mongolian rangeland as an example. We found a threshold in the proportion of usable pasture that corresponded to a specific range of rainfall values. Comparison of our results with previous ones supported our hypothesis about this threshold. The threshold behavior suggested that it is important to identify and monitor the boundary between equilibrium and nonequilibrium land use systems so that managers can respond to climatic change. National governments and aid agencies must understand the threshold process before they can identify focal areas where management regime change is required and propose appropriate policies that will support herders in the long term. Our study provides a simple, low-cost tool to evaluate ecosystems in this context.     

冻原高山草地牧户家畜养殖规模影响因素分析——以青海省为例

家畜养殖规模是草地载畜的重要组成部分,对其影响因素进行深度剖析,对于引导牧户合理放牧,遏制草地退化,确保我国生态安全意义重大。根据在青海省调查获取的牧户数据,本研究运用主成分分析法识别了冻原高山草地上相关因素对牧户家畜养殖量的贡献率,进一步采用分位数回归深入剖析了不同规模牧户家畜养殖量的影响因素及其影响规律,探索家畜养殖影响因素在牧户规模层面的异质性。结果表明：冻原高山草地牧户家畜养殖量的主导现实因素为自然因子,其余影响因素依次是政策因子、教育因子和非牧因子;中等以下规模牧户家畜养殖量受家庭劳动力和非牧就业收入占比的显著影响;中等及以上规模牧户家畜养殖量受人均经营草地面积和草原补奖政策的显著影响,补奖政策中禁牧比草畜平衡更能达到保护草地生态的目标。建议增加牧区非牧就业机会,积极引导中等以下规模牧户参与非牧就业,同时加大冻原高山草地禁牧范围,并在补偿标准上对中等及以上规模牧户适当倾斜。本研究发现了冻原高山草地上家畜养殖影响因素在牧户规模上的异质性,为政府针对不同规模牧户区分管理提供了一定的科学依据。     

Historical Forage Productivity and Cost of Capital for Cow-Calf Production in California

Exposure of livestock grazing to forage productivity variation and to market fluctuations affects the risk of investment and returns from cow-calf operations, but little work has been done to empirically compare these returns to the returns that would be demanded by financial markets from assets with similar risk and return characteristics. This study uses historical forage production data from three rangeland locations in California, and cattle and hay prices, to simulate financial statements for three hypothetical cow-calf producers in the period 1988–2007. Return on investment from year to year incorporates the variability and risk associated with dependence on natural forage production. Performance is then compared to the actual performance of a diversified portfolio of assets using the Capital Asset Pricing Model, from which the theoretical cost of capital for these hypothetical grazing enterprises is derived. Much like other agricultural enterprises, cow-calf production in California has low market risk and a low theoretical cost of capital. This theoretical cost of capital is still greater than the historical return from livestock production (excluding land appreciation) in the western United States, adding further backing to the point often made in the literature that ranchers who engage in cow-calf production are receiving benefits beyond the commercial returns from livestock production alone.