上海市金山区犬防工作现状、存在问题及建议

上海作为国际化大都市,随着养犬数量的不断增加,犬伤人引起人狂犬病事件时有发生,引起了社会广泛关注和市民一定程度的恐慌。本文总结近年上海市金山区犬狂犬病免疫工作,分析存在的问题并提出相应的对策,为做好犬狂犬病免疫工作、从源头上减少人感染狂犬病概率、保障公共卫生安全提供参考。     

上海市犬只管理中的动物卫生监督执法难点

动物卫生监督机构是养犬管理的职能部门之一。本文对上海养犬管理中存在的犬只销售备案制度,违法行为定性与法律适用,以及非狂犬病强制免疫点的监督执法等问题进行了法理分析,提示有关部门应明确备案条件,统一备案口径;发现未经工商登记、未经备案以及销售无检疫证明犬只等违法行为时应正确定性,准确适用法律;对未经认定为狂犬病强制免疫点的动物诊疗机构可依法给予行政处罚。     

佛山助力珠三角地区犬类狂犬病免疫安全区建设浅析

狂犬病致死率高达100%,目前尚无有效的治疗药物,只能通过预防措施减少发病和死亡率。广东省相关职能部门依据地区实际情况提出,在珠三角地区先行先试建设犬类狂犬病免疫安全区的构想。佛山市处在即将颁布《佛山市养犬管理条例》之际,通过大力加强狂犬病免疫、监测、规范犬类饲养、宣传教育等措施,争取全市犬只免疫覆盖率早日达到70%,实现狂犬病的有效防控。各项工作相互配合,齐头并进,共同助力珠三角地区犬类狂犬病免疫安全区建设。     

上海市犬类狂犬病免疫工作现状、问题及对策

上海犬类狂犬病免疫工作始于上世纪70年代末。30多年来,通过一系列工作措施的有效落实,狂犬病免疫工作取得了积极成效,有效降低了狂犬病发生风险。本文总结了2011—2014年上海市犬类狂犬病免疫工作成果,分析存在的问题,提出下一步防控对策,为上海市犬类狂犬病防控工作奠定基础。     

上海市狂犬病调查与分析

为了解上海市人间和畜间狂犬病流行状况以及犬免疫情况,探查感染来源和防控漏洞,采用摸底调查和数据分析方法开展调查,并分析流行原因。调查显示,自2009年以来,上海市几乎每年都有人间狂犬病病例出现;2019年5—6月发生的3起犬咬伤事件中,有2起确定感染来源为流浪犬;2011—2018年上海市免疫犬的狂犬病免疫合格率一直保持在75%以上,但2019年1—5月流浪犬猫的抗体阳性率仅为11.32%,远低70%的国际要求。结果表明,上海市流浪犬中存在狂犬病流行,并导致了人的发病死亡,它是上海市狂犬病流行的主要风险源。因此,要加强流浪犬的管理、监测和免疫,降低流浪犬的数量,提高流浪犬的免疫密度和免疫质量;加强防控技术培训和防治知识宣传,提高公众防范意识;完善相关法规,进一步明确相关部门的工作职责。本调查探明了上海市狂犬病流行的主要原因,并提出了可行性建议,为上海市控制和消灭狂犬病提供了参考。     

上海拟对饲养犬只实施狂犬病强制免疫

3月1日举行的上海市第十三届人大常委会第十七次会议审议《上海市动物防疫条例修正案（草案）》，其中规定上海对饲养的犬只实施狂犬病强制免疫，狂犬病免疫接种的成本费用由饲养者承担。     

狂犬病疫苗强制免疫探讨

在国内犬只总量不断增多的背景下,开展狂犬病疫苗强制免疫工作应得到社会关注和有关部门的大力支持。本文主要对狂犬病免疫率低问题研讨,优化升级犬只管理、增加犬只免疫密度,从而保证犬只免疫工作高效开展,有利于社会稳定发展和国民身心健康。     

云南某犬场犬狂犬病灭活疫苗免疫抗体效价评估

采用直接免疫荧光病毒中和试验(FAVN),对云南某犬场狂犬病灭活疫苗免疫28 d后的犬群随机抽样44只(份),检测血清中狂犬病病毒抗体效价。结果显示,44只受试犬,14只阳性(≥0.50 IU/m L),阳性率31.82%(14/44);狂犬病灭活疫苗免疫1次的31只受试犬(幼犬14只、训练犬17只),3只阳性,阳性率9.68%(3/31);免疫2次及2次以上的13只受试犬(3只训练犬,10只种犬),11只阳性,阳性率84.62%(11/13)。调查显示,该犬场狂犬病灭活疫苗免疫覆盖率为100%。笔者建议:在犬12月龄前,应进行两次狂犬病灭活疫苗免疫;在幼犬3月龄后进行第1次免疫,间隔1个月后进行第二次狂犬病灭活疫苗加强免疫,消除狂犬病免疫空挡,以后每年进行1次免疫;对于监测过程中,出现血清中和抗体效价低于0.50 IU/m L的犬只,应及时加强免疫1次;并加强犬场周围流浪犬、流浪猫管理。     

北京市犬只狂犬病强制免疫工作风险管理体系分析

本文通过对北京市犬只狂犬病强制免疫工作进行全面风险分析,识别相关风险,采用德尔菲法和风险矩阵法,构建了风险指标体系并开展了风险评估。结果显示存在"缺乏免疫点认定的工作机制"等风险30种,其中极高风险2个,分别为"应免疫犬只未实施免疫"和"免疫效果监测结果不合格";存在"监督检查不到位"等风险控制点42个,其中高等级关键控制点5个,分别为"监督检查不到位""责任落实不到位""人员专业知识不足""定点免疫单位内部管理问题"和"实施免疫人员问题";存在"区县兽医行政主管部门"等12个风险事件责任方,其中高关键度方3个,分别为"区县兽医行政主管部门""区县动物卫生监督所"和"定点免疫单位"。根据风险评估结论,运用风险管理策略,提出了犬只狂犬病强制免疫风险管理措施,为动物防疫管理工作所涉及到的"风险防控体系建设"提供了理论依据。     

创新免疫模式,强化狂犬病防控工作

近年来,随着我国社会经济的快速发展,人民社会水平的不断提高,犬猫的饲养量快速增加,尤其是农村地区。进入新时代,农村城市化进展的不断加快,出现较多数量的流浪犬猫,导致每年被犬猫伤害的人数不断增加,增加了感染狂犬病的风险,严重影响了市民的人身健康安全。党和政府高度重视人畜共患病的防治工作,上海市政府出台了《上海市犬类管理办法》,明确提出开展狂犬病强制免疫工作。为此,嘉定区动物疫病预防控制中心高度重视狂犬病防控工作,勇于开拓,创新免疫模式,强化狂犬病免疫机制,推进狂犬病免疫工作的顺利开展。     

Vaccination coverage and epidemiological parameters of the owned-dog population in Thungsong District, Thailand

Canine rabies vaccination is delivered in Thungsong District, Thailand, as an annual campaign between March 1 and 31, and also at other times through private veterinary clinics, para-veterinarians and health-care staff residing in the villages. The current questionnaire-interview survey was conducted between June 23 and July 18, 2002 to determine: rabies-vaccination coverage amongst the owned-dog population; basic dog-population information; and community awareness about rabies. The modified expand programme on immunization cluster-survey method was used to collect information about dog demography and management characteristics. Household knowledge about rabies and sources of rabies information were assessed. Vaccinated dogs were identified from vaccine certificates or owner reports confirmed by vaccinators. Seventy percent (95%CI 62-78) of 364 eligible owned dogs were vaccinated within the 6 months prior to data collection. Of these 255 vaccinated dogs, 44, 21, 13, 17 and 5% were vaccinated through the annual vaccination campaign, veterinary clinics, para-veterinarians, other vaccinators and owners, respectively. Fifty-four percent of households owned dogs. The sex ratio in dogs was 2 males per female; the dog: human ratio was 1: 4.6 with an average of 0.9 dogs per household (1.7 dogs per dog-owning household). Most dogs roamed freely and these were less likely to be vaccinated compared to dogs being kept on premises or on a leash. Almost all households were aware of rabies and the need for dog rabies vaccination as a control method. Seventy-six percent believed that rabies only occurred in summer. There was little awareness about cat rabies amongst households. Vaccination coverage in the total dog population clearly has not yet reached the 80% target level set by Thailand's official rabies-control programme. Improved effectiveness of the owned-dog rabies-vaccination campaigns in each community is needed-perhaps by more community education about dog management or by better management of ownerless dogs.     

Oral vaccination against rabies and the behavioural ecology of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes)

As a result of oral vaccination of foxes (Vulpes vulpes) against rabies, this virus disease has almost been completely eradicated from West- and Central Europe. In most countries, vaccine baits were distributed twice a year: during spring (March to May) and autumn (September to October). This strategy has shown to be able to control and eventually eradicate rabies. However, it remains to be clarified if this is the most cost-effective strategy. Astonishingly, the behavioural ecology of the target species, the red fox, did receive only limited attention selecting the periods when baits should be distributed. Considering the behavioural ecology and rabies epidemiology of foxes, territory owners seem to play a key role in the spread and maintenance of rabies. Thus, oral vaccination campaigns should be targeted primarily at these animals. It is suggested that the optimal timing for bait distribution in Europe is late autumn (November) or early winter (December), depending on the prevailing climatic conditions. Additional campaigns, when financially feasible, can be implemented in order to maintain a high vaccination coverage during the remaining year. Furthermore, different baiting strategies can be selected in case of re-infection or persistent residual foci.     

Evaluation of Mass Vaccination Campaign Coverage Against Rabies in Dogs in Tunisia

In Tunisia, rabies continues to be considered as a serious public health concern. Very costly mass vaccination of dogs against rabies and expensive post‐exposure prophylaxis are prerequisites to maintain a low level of human rabies cases. In Tunisia, the implementation of mass vaccination campaigns at the national level has undoubtedly contributed to the drop of rabies endemicity, but the overall outcome is rather suboptimal. In this investigation, we wanted to estimate the extent of the vaccination coverage in dogs in three Governorates (Manouba, Kassrine and Mednine), by collecting data through questionnaires and interviews relevant to 1470 owned dogs. When the campaign is correctly applied, as in Manouba, almost all the targeted dog population can be reached by parenteral vaccination and an almost elimination of the disease can be evidenced. However, in Kasserine and especially in Medenine, where the vaccination coverage is lower than 31%, a reservoir for the disease can be maintained. To match the official figures of vaccination coverage, we should update the statistics of the size of dog population which seems to be bigger than what is assumed. In addition, we wanted to assess the level of involvement of the local population with the vaccination campaigns by marking vaccinated dogs with necklaces and establishing later on the vaccination coverage accordingly. The highest levels of vaccination coverage can be reached in the rural regions. Therefore, the low vaccination coverage in rural areas, reported at the national level, is more attributable to the lack of human and financial resources to reach remote regions. We think that rabies control programmes in Tunisia can be successful if vaccination coverage can reach 70% in all parts of the country. The achieved vaccination coverage should be estimated after random visits in many parts of the country and by checking valid vaccination certificates.     

SURVIS: a fully-automated aerial baiting system for the distribution of vaccine baits for wildlife

Large-scale oral vaccination of wildlife against rabies using aerial bait distribution has been successfully used to control terrestrial wildlife rabies in Europe and North America. A technical milestone to large-scale oral rabies vaccination campaigns in Europe was the development of fully-automated, computer-supported and cost-efficient technology for aerial distribution of baits like the SURVIS -system. Each bait released is recorded by the control unit through a sensor, with the exact location, time and date of release and subsequently the collected data can be evaluated, e.g. in GIS programmes. Thus, bait delivery systems like SURVIS are an important management tool for flight services and the responsible authorities for the optimization and evaluation of oral vaccination campaigns of wildlife against rabies or the control of other relevant wildlife diseases targeted by oral baits.     

Impact of Rabies Vaccination History on Attainment of an Adequate Antibody Titre Among Dogs Tested for International Travel Certification,Israel – 2010–2014

Rabies is endemic in wildlife or domestic carnivore populations globally. Infection of domestic dogs is of particular concern in many areas. In regions where domestic animals are at risk of exposure to rabies virus, dogs should be routinely vaccinated against rabies to protect both pet and human populations. Many countries require demonstration of an adequate level of serum rabies neutralizing antibodies to permit entry of dogs during international travel. We analysed rabies titres of dogs seeking travel certification in Israel to assess demographic and vaccine history factors associated with antibody titres below the acceptable threshold for travel certification. Having received only one previous rabies vaccination and a longer duration since the most recent vaccination was received were primary risk factors for not achieving an adequate rabies virus neutralizing antibody titre for travel certification. These risk factors had stronger effects in younger animals, but were consistent for dogs of all ages. In particular, these findings reiterate the importance of administering at least two rabies vaccinations (the primo vaccination and subsequent booster) to ensure population‐level protection against rabies in dogs globally.     

The spatio-temporal dynamics of a post-vaccination resurgence of rabies in foxes and emergency vaccination planning

We used a simulation model to study the spatio-temporal dynamics of a potential rabies outbreak in an immunized fox population after the termination of a long-term, large-scale vaccination program with two campaigns per year one in spring and one in autumn. The 'worst-case' scenario of rabies resurgence occurs if rabies has persisted at a low prevalence despite control and has remained undetected by a customary surveillance program or if infected individuals invade to the control area. Even if the termination of a vaccination program entails such a risk of a subsequent new outbreak, prolonged vaccination of a wild host population is expensive and the declining cost-benefit ratio over time eventually makes it uneconomic. Based on the knowledge of the spatio-temporal dynamics of a potential new outbreak gained from our modelling study, we suggest "terminating but observing" to be an appropriate strategy. Simulating the decline of population immunity without revaccination, we found that a new outbreak of rabies should be detected by customary surveillance programs within two years after the termination of the control. The time until detection does not depend on whether vaccination was terminated within the fourth, fifth or sixth years of repeated biannual campaigns. But it is faster if the program was completed with an autumn campaign (because next-year dispersal then occurs after a noticeable decrease in population immunity). Finally, if a rabid fox is detected after terminating vaccination, we determine a rule for defining a circular hazard area based on the simulated spatial spread of rabies. The radius of this area should be increased with the time since the last vaccination campaign. The trade-off between the number of foxes potentially missed by the emergency treatment and the cost for the emergency measures in an enlarged hazard area was found.     

Feline rabies. ABCD guidelines on prevention and management

OverviewRabies virus belongs to the genus Lyssavirus, together with European bat lyssaviruses 1 and 2. In clinical practice, rabies virus is easily inactivated by detergent-based disinfectants.InfectionRabid animals are the only source of infection. Virus is shed in the saliva some days before the onset of clinical signs and transmitted through a bite or a scratch to the skin or mucous membranes. The average incubation period in cats is 2 months, but may vary from 2 weeks to several months, or even years.Disease signsAny unexplained aggressive behaviour or sudden behavioural change in cats must be considered suspicious. Two disease manifestations have been identified in cats: the furious and the dumb form. Death occurs after a clinical course of 1–10 days.DiagnosisA definitive rabies diagnosis is obtained by post-mortem laboratory investigation. However, serological tests are used for post-vaccinal control, especially in the context of international movements.Disease managementPost-exposure vaccination of cats depends on the national public health regulations, and is forbidden in many countries.Vaccination recommendationsA single rabies vaccination induces a long-lasting immunity. Kittens should be vaccinated at 12–16 weeks of age to avoid interference from maternally derived antibodies and revaccinated 1 year later. Although some vaccines protect against virulent rabies virus challenge for 3 years or more, national or local legislation may call for annual boosters.     

Veterinary surgeon's guide to Australian bat lyssavirus

Veterinary surgeons in Australia must be aware of the emerging viral diseases and their potential effects on public health generally and, more specifically, on the veterinary profession. Australian bat lyssavirus was identified in 1996 and causes rabies-like disease in bats and humans. Two humans from Queensland have died of Australian bat lyssavirus encephalitis. Surveillance has shown that all Australian bats must be considered carriers of this new virus, therefore protective apparel should be used when handling bats. The pre-exposure regimen of inactivated rabies vaccine (Pasteur Mérieux) provides protection against infection. As part of the preventive regimen, at risk groups, such as veterinary surgeons, should seriously consider pre-exposure rabies vaccination. The post-exposure protocol involves administration of human rabies immunoglobulins and five intramuscular injections of the inactivated rabies vaccine.     

Canine vaccination--providing broader benefits for disease control

This paper reviews the broader benefits of canine vaccination to human and animal health and welfare with an emphasis on the impacts of mass dog vaccination against rabies in countries of the less-developed world. Domestic dogs are the source of infection for the vast majority (>95%) of cases of human rabies worldwide, and dogs remain the principal reservoir throughout Africa and Asia. Canine vaccination against rabies has been shown to dramatically reduce the number of cases in dogs, the incidence of human animal-bite injuries (and hence the demand for costly post-exposure prophylaxis) and the likely number of human cases, primarily in children. Further benefits include the mitigation of the psychological consequences of rabies in a community, improved attitudes towards animals and animal welfare and reduced livestock losses from canine rabies. Mass vaccination has recently been used in the conservation management of wild carnivore populations threatened by transmission of rabies and canine distemper virus from domestic dog populations. Vaccination of wildlife hosts directly may also provide an option for mitigating infectious disease threats. The development of integrated control measures involving public health, veterinary, wildlife conservation and animal welfare agencies is needed to ensure that control of canine diseases becomes a reality in Africa and Asia. The tools and delivery systems are all available--all that is needed is the political will to free the world from the ongoing tragedy of these diseases.     

Rabies-vaccination coverage and profiles of the owned-dog population in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia

The Bolivian government issued a regulation for rabies control in November 2005, owing to increasing the prevalence of dog and human rabies cases in recent years. An assessment of rabies-vaccination coverage and other factors that might influence the success of the on-going vaccination campaign was needed. The objective of this study was to investigate dog rabies vaccination coverage and risk factors associated with dogs being unvaccinated against rabies, and profiles of the owned-dog population in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, where dog rabies was endemic. Mainly due to logistical reasons, the WHO's expanded programme on immunization cluster-survey method was used. The 390 households were included in the study. Information about dog population and management characteristics was obtained for 542 dogs from 301 households. On average, households had 1.4 dogs and 1.8 dogs per dog-owning household (median = 1). The human-to-dog ratio was 4.6 : 1. During the last 1 year prior to the study, of the 539 dogs aged >or=1 month, 463 (85%; 95% CI 79-91; design effect 3.6) were classified as vaccinated. Amongst the study dogs, dogs aged 1-11 months were the higher risk of dogs not being vaccinated (OR = 8.2; 95% CI 4.3-15.6; P < 0.01). Almost two-thirds of the study dogs were allowed to roam freely throughout the day or in part. Community education efforts should address the importance of dog ownership and movement restriction, and the need to vaccinate young dogs.