Investigating duration of nocturnal ingestive and sleep behaviors of horses bedded on straw versus shavings

Horses are stabled overnight for a number of practical reasons; however, there is little research quantifying nocturnal equine behavioral patterns or the extent to which different environments influence nocturnal behavior. The aim of this study was to establish whether differences in duration of sleep and ingestive behaviors were apparent for horses bedded on straw (group 1) or shavings (group 2). Ten geldings of mixed breed (mean age: 7.3 ± 3.53 years) bedded on either shavings (n = 5) or straw (n = 5) were observed between 7 pm and 7 am. Duration of behaviors according to a predefined ethogram was recorded in minutes using a video recorder and continuous focal sampling. Mann–Whitney U tests were used to identify whether any significant differences in duration of ingestion and sleep behaviors occurred for horses bedded on straw compared with shavings. Of the total observation period, group 1 spent, on average, 29.3% of their time budget engaged in recumbent behaviors, compared with 12.2% for group 2. However, no significant differences in duration were established between horses bedded on straw or shavings for standing sleep, sternal recumbency, and lateral recumbency behaviors (P > 0.05). Ingestive behaviors occupied approximately one-third of the time budget, with no significant difference (P > 0.05) observed between groups. On average, group 1 spent a longer proportion of the observation period ingesting bedding (8.1%) compared with group 2 (1%). Duration of bedding ingestion appeared to peak between 1 am and 7 am for both groups. Although not quantified, general observations revealed horses were motivated to alternate between eating hay and bedding in both groups, owing to the prevalence of bedding ingestion. The results indicate that straw bedding facilitates the display of ingestive and sleep behaviors, whereas horses bedded on shavings spent a greater proportion of their nocturnal time budget engaged in “other” behaviors. Further research is required to investigate the extent to which different types of bedding material enrich the environment of horses that are stabled overnight.     

Effects of Different Bedding Materials on the Behavior of Horses Housed in Single Stalls

The effects of three different bedding materials (straw, wood shavings, and straw pellets) on the behavior of six warmblood horses (four mares, two of them with foals) housed in single stalls were analyzed. Each material was used for 2 weeks in three consecutive runs. The behavior of the horses was videotaped and analyzed on the first and last 3 days for each bedding alternative in the last of the three runs. The time budgets for the behaviors including standing, eating, lying, occupation with bedding material, and other were generated. Compared with straw pellets and wood shavings, the application of straw bedding led to a significantly higher frequency and longer duration of occupation with bedding material and in turn, shorter fractions of standing and other behaviors. The total duration of lying was significantly longer on straw than on straw pellets. Straw pellets resulted in the least mean recumbency duration per occurrence of this behavior. Because occupation is one of the important functions that bedding material is supposed to fulfill, we concluded that in regard to horse behavior, straw bedding was the best among the three materials analyzed. Further investigations with a more homogeneous group of probands are necessary to verify the observed behavioral reactions.     

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in the horse. 2: Therapy

The therapy of equine chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) essentially entails minimising the horse's exposure to the aetiological antigens which are predominantly thermophilic actinomycetes and moulds occurring in hay and straw. This can be achieved, for example, by keeping affected horses permanently out of doors, or when stabled, using shredded paper, wood shavings or peat moss as bedding and feeding a complete cubed diet. There should be no supplementary hay feeding apart from dust-free vacuum-packed hay. Applying such measures generally allows horses to become asymptomatic in seven to 14 days. Bronchodilators and corticosteroids bring about a marked, but temporary, improvement and can be of value in the treatment of acute attacks. The use of oral bronchodilators in combination with environmental control measures may hasten the remission of clinical signs in affected horse. Inhaled sodium cromoglycate can be used prophylactically in asymptomatic horses to prevent the onset of COPD when unavoidable antigen exposure is anticipated.     

Suitability of biocompost as a bedding material for stabled horses: respiratory hygiene and management practicalities

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Bedding material in stables has an important influence on air hygiene and information on the suitability of biocompost and wood shavings is incomplete. OBJECTIVES: To compare the suitability and benefit of biocompost and wood shavings as bedding in horse stables and to determine key air factors for the evaluation of the potential impact of these materials on respiratory health. METHODS: The study was conducted in a naturally ventilated stable with 4 horses. Air hygiene parameters were measured 24 h/day for 7 days with each bedding type: ammonia (NH3), inhalable and respirable dust, endotoxins, colony forming units (CFU) of total mesophilic bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and thermophilic actinomycetes. Both bedding materials were analysed for general chemical composition, particle size distribution and natural microbial content. The animals' behaviour was monitored by video cameras, and their health and cleanliness status determined by clinical and visual examination. RESULTS: Concentrations of NH3, dust, endoxins and fungi were significantly higher during the monitoring period with wood shavings than with biocompost. In contrast concentrations of mesophilic bacteria, mesophilic actinomycetes and thermophilic actinomycetes microbial pollutants were highest with biocompost. The water content of bulk biocompost was considerably higher than that of wood shavings. Particles < or = 0.4 mm were not detectable in bulk wood shavings. The concentration of thermophilic actinomycetes by weight in raw biocompost was 639 times higher than in raw wood shavings. No significant differences were observed in the time spent by the horses lying down. The biocompost material tended to adhere more intensively to the animals' hair coat. Horses showed no clinical signs indicating any adverse effects of the biocompost material during the trials. CONCLUSIONS: Biocompost cannot be recommended as bedding material for horses in stables, because the concentration of thermophilic actinomycetes and other agents that elicit and maintain recurrent airway obstructions was significantly higher with biocompost than with wood shavings. To ensure the well-being of horses, any new bedding material must be tested very carefully before it is introduced to the market.     

Chopped palm leaves as an acceptable bedding material for broiler production

An experiment was conducted to examine the suitability of chopped palm leaves to utilize as a bedding material, compared to wood shavings or wheat straw, on growth performance, immune response, and air quality for broiler production. Three bedding materials were used: wood shavings, chopped palm leaves, and wheat straw. A total of 3,240 one-day-old broiler chicks (Ross 308) was randomly distributed into 3 litter groups (1,080 birds each). Each group had 6 replicate pens (180 birds/pen). All birds were kept under similar environmental conditions, except for bedding material. The obtained results revealed that the growth performance and total mortality rate were not significantly affected by bedding material type. However, using chopped palm leaves as bedding material significantly reduced (P < 0.05) ammonia emission compared to wood shavings and wheat straw (4.1, 7.3 and 8.4 ppm, respectively). A similar trend was observed for settled dust concentration (4.0, 10.3, and 5.9 g/m², respectively). Moreover, an improvement in cell-mediated immunity was observed in boilers kept on chopped palm leaves. Carcass characteristics were not significantly affected by bedding material. It was concluded that chopped palm leaves are a good alternative bedding material to wood shavings and wheat straw in commercial broiler production.     

Effects of bedding type on compost quality of equine stall waste: implications for small horse farms

Our objective in this study is to compare 4 of the most common bedding materials used by equine operations on the chemical and physical characteristics of composted equine stall waste. Twelve Standardbred horses were adapted to the barn and surrounding environment for 2 wk before the start of the study. Groups of 3 horses were bedded on 1 of 4 different bedding types (wood shavings, pelletized wood materials, long straw, and pelletized straw) for 16 h per day for 18 d. Stalls were cleaned by trained staff daily, and all contents removed were weighed and stored separately by bedding material on a level covered concrete pad for the duration of the study. Compost piles were constructed using 3 replicate piles of each bedding type in a randomized complete block design. Each pile was equipped with a temperature sensor and data logger. Water was added and piles were turned weekly throughout the 100-d compost process. Initial and final samples were taken, dried, and analyzed for DM mass, OM, inorganic nitrogen (nitrate-N and ammonium-N), electrical conductivity, and soluble (plant-available) nutrients. Data were analyzed using the GLM procedure, and means were separated using Fischer's protected LSD test (P < 0.05). No significant temperature differences were observed among the bedding materials. The composting process resulted in significant reductions (P < 0.05) in DM mass for each of the 4 bedding materials. The composting process resulted in significant reductions (P < 0.05) in OM and C:N ratio for all 4 bedding materials. The composted long straw material had greater concentrations of total Kjeldahl nitrogen (P < 0.05), nitrate-N (P < 0.05), and ammonium-N (P < 0.05) than the composted wood shavings. This study demonstrated that incorporating a simple aerobic composting system may greatly reduce the overall volume of manure and yield a material that is beneficial for land application in pasture-based systems. The straw-based materials may be better suited for composting and subsequent land application; however, factors such as suitability of the bedding material for equine use, material cost, labor, and availability must be considered when selecting a bedding material.     

Horse hair coat cleanliness is affected by bedding material: A comparison of clean and used wheat straw, wood shavings and pelleted newspaper

Wheat straw, wood shavings and pelleted recycled newspaper were used as bedding materials and compared in maintaining horse hair coat cleanliness. Each material was sampled prior to use and after use having been wetted with urine in a bedding study conducted with 4 adult horses in box stalls. Because feces were removed daily during stall maintenance, frehhly voided feces were also collected so that all components in a used bedding (clean portion, wetted portion, feces) were represented. Hair coat cleanli-ness was measured in vitro by exposing a tanned pony hide with hair to clean and wet beddings as well as feces. Cleanliness was evaluated in terms of the amounts of moisture, volatile-N and solid matter transferred from each component and type of bedding material to the haired hide. Transfers to wool flannel were also measured as a comparison to the haired hide. Woolen products are used in the horse industry and also come into contact with components of used bedding. Freshly voided feces and used beddings transferred more (P<.05) moisture (85 and 54%, respectively) than clean beddings. Wheat straw transferred less (P<.05) solid matter (86 and 64%, respectively) than wood shavings or pelleted newspaper. Wood shavings transferred more (P<.05) solid matter than wheat straw or pelleted newspaper to wool flannel resulting in a statistically significant used bedding X surface interaction. These data indicate that type as well as components of used beddings affect hair coat cleanliness. The ability of a bedding material to maintain hair coat cleanliness should also be a factor (e.g., cost, availability, moisture holding capacity, nontoxicity) in its consideration for use as a bedding for animals.     

Dioxin intoxication from chronic exposure of horses to pentachlorophenol-contaminated wood shavings.

Investigations into the cause of health problems on a horse-breeding farm led to the discovery of high concentrations (630 to 9,810 mg/kg of bedding) of pentachlorophenol in wood shavings used as bedding for horses over a period of 2 to 4 years. Toxicologic signs in the horses were characteristic of toxic effects associated with exposure of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans. Tissue residue analysis confirmed presence of toxic polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin and dibenzofuran isomers known to be in pentachlorophenol, substantiating the bioavailability of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in the wood shavings. The findings provide evidence that residue concentrations in the range of 2 ng/g of toxic polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin isomers in liver or fat correlate with toxicologic effects in horses.     

Effects of Bedding Material on the Lying Behavior in Stabled Horses

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of straw, sawdust, coconut husk (husk), and coconut fiber (fiber) on the welfare of stable horses by observing their resting behavior. Twenty horses with ages ranging from 3 to 21 years were used at the Equine Research Institute of the Japan Racing Association, Utsunomiya, Japan. Five horses were allocated to each bedding condition. The behavior of each horse was recorded by video camera for 3 days and was continuously sampled from 17:00 to 05:00. The total duration, the number of bouts, and the mean and the maximum duration of bouts in standing rest, sternal lying, and lateral lying were calculated and analysed by the Kruskal-Wallis test and post hoc Steel-Dwass test. There was no difference in the standing rest and the sternal lying among beddings. Significant differences were observed in these values in the lateral lying among the different beddings (P<0.05). The values of the means of the total duration, the number of bouts, and the mean and the maximum duration of bout in the lateral lying were greater when husk was used as the bedding material than when sawdust were used (P<0.05). The results of the observations show that the new bedding materials would be as usable as straw. However, lateral lying was observed less frequently when sawdust were used as bedding; this indicates that use of sawdust as bedding material will decrease the welfare of stabled horses.     

Air hygiene in stables. 1: Effects of stable design, ventilation and management on the concentration of respirable dust

The concentration of fungal spores, the main constituents of respirable dust in stables, is determined by rates of release from fodder and bedding and rate of clearance, principally by ventilation. This paper outlines the principles that govern the application of natural ventilation to the control of air hygiene in barns and individual boxes for horses. When release rates are low, ventilation rates over four air changes per hour are satisfactory. Ventilation was satisfactory in individual boxes but usually unsatisfactory in barns and specific recommendations are made for improvement. Preliminary observations in stables with clean, well-managed bedding revealed only small differences between straw, wood shavings and paper. In these circumstances hay tended to be the major source of respirable spores.     

Generation of Airborne Particles from Different Bedding Materials Used for Horse Keeping

Among other factors (eg, feed), bedding material has an important effect on stable air quality with respect to airborne particle formation. This study was designed to establish which material is suited to create an improved stable environment for horses. First, the following materials were analyzed under standardized conditions in a laboratory experiment: wheat straw, dry wood shavings, hemp shives, linen shives, wheat straw pellets, paper cuttings (unprinted newspaper). The second investigation was carried out under in situ conditions in which three of these bedding materials (wheat straw, wood shavings, and straw pellets) were analyzed under practical conditions. In both experiments, airborne particle concentrations were detected online with the gravimetrically measuring analyzer TEOM 1400a (Rupprecht & Patashnick Co., Franklin, MA). In the laboratory experiment, the TEOM was equipped successively with different inlets to measure the particle fractions PM₁, PM_2.5, PM₁₀, and PM₂₀. During the in situ experiment, only the fraction PM₁₀ was detected. In the laboratory experiment, hemp and linen had the highest generation of airborne particles in all fractions. The lowest particle generation was detected with straw pellets. Results of the in situ investigation supported results of the laboratory experiment with respect to mean particle generation of straw pellets. With an average of 111.2 ± 149.2 μg/m³, it was significantly lower than the mean particle generation of wheat straw with 227.5 ± 280.8 μg/m³. The particle generation of wood shavings had an average of 140.9 ± 141.9 μg/m³ and also was significantly lower than the generation by wheat straw. An activity-correlated variation of particle concentrations was found. In conclusion, taking both experiments into consideration, straw pellets seemed to be suitable for horse stables, to promote an improvement in the stable climate in relation to airborne particle formation.     

Ammonia emissions from broiler litter: response to bedding materials and acidifiers

1. In a pen study, NH(3) flux estimates were performed when clean wheat straw or wood shavings were used as bedding materials in combination with two NH(3) control amendments: sodium bisulphate and a commercial premix of phosphoric + hydrochloric + citric acids. 2. Ammonia emissions from wood shavings were 19% greater than from wheat straw around waterers, but statistically similar around feeders. These results could be due to the greater caking observed when wheat straw was used. 3. Sodium bisulphate reduced NH(3) emissions significantly only in the first half of the rearing period; the loss of efficacy in the second half resulted in total NH(3) volatilisation not statistically different from the untreated control. The treatment containing phosphoric + hydrochloric + citric acids did not have a significant effect in decreasing NH(3) emissions. 4. Bird mortality was not affected by the treatments, but broiler weight gain when wheat straw was used was significantly lower than with wood shavings, which could have been caused by the greater caking observed with wheat straw.     

Effect of reducing inspired oxygen concentration on oxygenation parameters during general anaesthesia in horses in lateral or dorsal recumbency

Objective

To compare the effects of two concentrations of oxygen delivered to the anaesthetic breathing circuit on oxygenation in mechanically ventilated horses anaesthetised with isoflurane and positioned in dorsal or lateral recumbency.

Methods

Selected respiratory parameters and blood lactate were measured and oxygenation indices calculated, before and during general anaesthesia, in 24 laterally or dorsally recumbent horses. Horses were randomly assigned to receive 100% or 60% oxygen during anaesthesia. All horses were anaesthetised using the same protocol and intermittent positive pressure ventilation (IPPV) was commenced immediately following anaesthetic induction and endotracheal intubation. Arterial blood gas analysis was performed and oxygenation indices calculated before premedication, immediately after induction, at 10 and 45 min after the commencement of mechanical ventilation, and in recovery.

Results

During anaesthesia, the arterial partial pressure of oxygen was adequate in all horses, regardless of position of recumbency or the concentration of oxygen provided. At 10 and 45 min after commencing IPPV, the arterial partial pressure of oxygen was lower in horses in dorsal recumbency compared with those in lateral recumbency, irrespective of the concentration of oxygen supplied. Based on oxygenation indices, pulmonary function during general anaesthesia in horses placed in dorsal recumbency was more compromised than in horses in lateral recumbency, irrespective of the concentration of oxygen provided.

Conclusion

During general anaesthesia, using oxygen at a concentration of 60% instead of 100% maintains adequate arterial oxygenation in horses in dorsal or lateral recumbency. However, it will not reduce pulmonary function abnormalities induced by anaesthesia and recumbency.     

Dobutamine-induced augmentation of cardiac output does not enhance respiratory gas exchange in anesthetized recumbent healthy horses

The influence of pharmacologic enhancement of cardiac output on the alveolar-to-arterial oxygen tension (difference (P[A-a]O2), physiologic right-to-left shunt fraction (Qs/Qt), and physiologic dead space-to-tidal volume ratio (VD/VT) ws studied in halothane-anesthetized horses in left lateral, right lateral, and dorsal recumbencies. Adult horses were anesthetized, using xylazine (2.2 mg/kg, IM), guaifenesin (50 mg/kg, IV), thiamylal (4.4 mg/kg, IV), and halothane (1.5% to 2% inspired) in 100% O2. Mechanical ventilation was controlled to maintain arterial eucapnia (PaCO2) 35 to 45 mm of Hg) for a period lasting at least 1 hour. Dobutamine was administered at dosages of 1, 3, and 5 micrograms/kg/min, IV, on a randomized basis. The P(A-a)O2, Qs/Qt, and VD/VT were calculated during equilibration and after each dobutamine infusion was given. The P(A-a)O2 and Qs/Qt were significantly (P less than 0.05) greater and VD/VT tended to be greater in horses in dorsal recumbency, compared with those values in horses in left lateral or right lateral recumbency. Cardiac output was similar in all horses, regardless of body position (recumbency). The qualitative relationship between horses in the 3 recumbent positions were not altered by dobutamine. Cardiac output was significantly (P less than 0.05) increased by 3 or 5 micrograms of dobutamine/kg/min in all horses, whereas P(A-a)O2, Qs/Qt, and VD/VT were not significantly altered by dobutamine. The results of the present study failed to substantiate our clinical observations of decreased P(A-a)O2 and Qs/Qt in anesthetized compromised horses given dobutamine.     

Environment and prednisone interactions in the treatment of recurrent airway obstruction (heaves)

Recurrent airway obstruction (RAO) or heaves is a manifestation of a hypersensitivity to dust, moulds, and spores in the environment of a susceptible horse. Although in the majority of RAO-affected horses, clinical remission can be achieved by keeping horses at pasture to reduce their allergen exposure, this often is not practicable. For this reason, we investigated if changing the environment of a single stall in a 4 stall stable was sufficient to improve lung function and reduce inflammation in RAO-affected horses. In addition, we determined if addition of oral prednisone provided additional benefit. Twelve RAO-susceptible horses were stabled, fed hay, and bedded on straw until they developed airway obstruction. At this point, bedding was changed to wood shavings and they were fed a pelleted diet for 2 weeks. Lung function was measured and bronchoalveolar lavage was performed before and 3, 7, and 14 days after environmental modification. In a crossover design, horses were treated for the 14 days with prednisone tablets (2.2 mg/kg bwt, q. 24 h). Horses then returned to pasture for 30 days. Airway obstruction was greatest before environmental modification. Significant improvement in lung function occurred within 3 days of the change in environment and continued to Day 7. Airway function was best after 30 days at pasture. The clinical response achieved by environmental modification was not significantly improved by addition of oral prednisone. The total number of cells, total neutrophils, and percent neutrophils was greatest before environmental modification. In the absence of prednisone, total and percent neutrophils did not decrease until Day 14 and total cell number until 30 days at pasture. In the presence of prednisone, total cells and total and percent neutrophils decreased by Day 3 and again at pasture. The fact that lung function can be improved within 3 days by environmental management alone emphasises the need for allergen reduction as the cornerstone of treatment of RAO. Although prednisone induced a more rapid reduction in airway inflammation, this was not associated with a more rapid improvement in airway function.     

The effect of changing the mode of ventilation on the arterial-to-end-tidal CO2 difference and physiological dead space in laterally and dorsally recumbent horses during halothane anesthesia

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of changing the mode of ventilation from spontaneous to controlled on the arterial-to-end-tidal CO2 difference [P(a-ET)CO2] and physiological dead space (VD(phys)/VT) in laterally and dorsally recumbent halothane-anesthetized horses. STUDY DESIGN; Prospective, experimental, nonrandomized trial. ANIMALS: Seven mixed breed adult horses (1 male and 6 female) weighing 320 +/- 11 kg. METHODS: Horses were anesthetized in 2 positions-right lateral and dorsal recumbency-with a minimum interval of 1 month. Anesthesia was maintained with halothane in oxygen for 180 minutes. Spontaneous ventilation (SV) was used for 90 minutes followed by 90 minutes of controlled ventilation (CV). The same ventilator settings were used for both laterally and dorsally recumbent horses. Arterial blood gas analysis was performed every 30 minutes during anesthesia. End-tidal CO2 (PETCO2) was measured continuously. P(a-ET)CO2 and VD(phys)NT were calculated. Statistical analysis included analysis of variance for repeated measures over time, followed by Student-Newman-Keuls test. Comparison between groups was performed using a paired t test; P < .05 was considered significant. RESULTS: P(a-ET)CO2 and VD(phys)/VT increased during SV, whereas CV reduced these variables. The variables did not change significantly throughout mechanical ventilation in either group. Dorsally recumbent horses showed greater P(a-ET)CO2 and VD(phys)/VT values throughout. PaCO2 was greater during CV in dorsally positioned horses. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Changing the mode of ventilation from spontaneous to controlled was effective in reducing P(a-ET)CO2 and physiological dead space in both laterally and dorsally recumbent halothane-anesthetized horses. Dorsal recumbency resulted in greater impairment of effective ventilation. Capnometry has a limited value for accurate estimation of PaCO2 in anesthetized horses, although it may be used to evaluate pulmonary function when paired with arterial blood gas analysis.     

Sleep and Wakefulness in the Housed Pony Under Different Dietary Conditions

For several weeks, three ponies kept in an environment with controlled light and temperature, were studied for behaviour (time spent in recumbency and time required to consume hay or oats) and for electrical activity of the brain (cortical and sub-cortical) during the night phase of the circadian rhythm.

Recumbency was adopted by all the ponies for six or seven periods during the night. With a regimen of hay ad libitum, about four hours were cumulated in sternal recumbency and only one hour in complete lateral recumbency. Various degree of sleep, as identified by cortical and hippocampal electrical activities, accounted for 30% of the circadian cycle. Paradoxical sleep was calculated to occur during 7% of the 24 hours.

When oats were substituted for hay or during fasting for two to five days, the total recumbency time and the total sleep time (slow wave sleep and paradoxical sleep) increased. The time in lateral recumbency did not change.

     

Airborne dust and aeroallergen concentrations in different sources of feed and bedding for horses

Summary

Standardized methods were used to make quantitative and qualitative assessments of respirable dust and aeroallergens in feed and bedding for horses. Concentrations of airborne dust were measured by using a Rion particle counter, and levels of major aeroallergens implicated in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease were measured by using an Andersen sampler. Laboratory conditions allowed comparison of the different sources of forage, supplements, and bedding without external influences such as ventilation, external temperature and horse activity affecting the result. Crass silages of approximately 50 % dry matter and alfalfa pellets appeared to be very good sources of forage with low levels of dust and aeroallergens. The studied good quality straw was significantly less dusty with fewer allergens than the wood shavings. Supplements, such as whole grains and molassed concentrates, contained many respirable particles and aeroallergens. Rolled grains were significantly more dusty than good hay.     

Effect of body position on intravesical pressure in the anaesthetised bitch.

The position adopted by 50 recumbent dogs was recorded while they were sleeping or resting; the commonest orientation of their hindquarters was right lateral recumbency. The intravesical pressure in the urinary bladder of 24 anaesthetised bitches lying in right lateral recumbency was compared with the intravesical pressure recorded when the same bitches were supported in a standing position. The intravesical pressure was significantly higher when the bitches were in right lateral recumbency (P less than 0.001) and the difference was unaffected by whether they were continent or not, and had no significant correlation with bodyweight. These findings help to explain why bitches with an incompetent urethral sphincter mechanism tend to leak predominantly when they are recumbent.     

Respirable dust concentrations in equine stables. Part 2: the benefits of soaking hay and optimising the environment in a neighbouring stable

The effect of soaking hay to minimise equine breathing zone respirable dust concentration (RDC) is unknown, as is the duration of soaking required. Additionally, the influence of the bedding and forage used in one stable on the mean and maximum RDC in a neighbouring stable within a common airspace is unknown. Consequently, in the management of equine environmental respiratory disease uncertainty remains about the necessity for optimising conditions in neighbouring stables. Investigations using a real-time continuous particle monitor revealed that when feeding hay, horses' mean breathing zone RDC was significantly reduced if the hay was immersed or soaked for a prolonged time, prior to feeding. There was no advantage in soaking for an extended time period. Implementing management changes in one stable (changing from straw bedding and hay feeding to wood shavings bedding and haylage feeding) significantly reduced mean and maximum background RDC in a neighbouring stable within a common airspace.