Chemical, physical, and environmental properties of pelleted newspaper compared to wheat straw and wood shavings as bedding for horses.

Two experiments were conducted comparing pelleted recycled newspaper (PN) to wheat straw (S) and kiln-dried pine wood shavings (WS) as an animal bedding material. Adult horses housed 20 to 21 h/d in boxstalls served as the animal model for comparisons. In Exp. 1 eight boxstalls, each housing one horse, were each bedded with two types of PN (0.32 and 0.64 x 2.54 cm), S, and WS over four 5-d periods (replicated 4 x 4 Latin square). Initial amounts of bedding materials surpassed most commercial conditions, but stalls were cleaned daily of feces only and additional clean bedding was added as needed to maintain animal cleanliness, thus challenging the bedding properties of each material. In Exp. 2 nine boxstalls were bedded with PN (0.32 x 2.54 cm), S, and WS over three 14-d periods (three 3 x 3 Latin squares) during summer and autumn. Feces and wet spots were removed daily and clean bedding was added to reestablish working volume and simulate commercial conditions. In Exp. 1 and 2 daily additions of clean bedding varied (P < 0.05) with material (S > WS > PN). The higher water-holding capacity of PN and WS contributed to fewer bedding replacements. Usage of each material was greater (P < 0.05) during the autumn; PN had the greatest increase. Type of material and season also influenced bedding environment. Bedding pH increased (P < 0.05) with use and was highest in PN and lowest in S. Higher concentrations of breathable NH3 N were present in stalls bedded with PN and during autumn. Higher pH of used PN and decreased ventilation due to closed doors and windows during autumn were contributing factors. Season, type of bedding, and duration of its use affected (P < 0.05) numbers as well as species of microorganisms present in the breathing zone, nasal cavity, and on the leg of the horse. Clean and used WS contained greater (P < 0.05) quantities of particle fines, but with 5 d of use, particle fines in PN also increased. Quantities of breathable dust during cleaning of stalls varied (P < 0.05) with material and duration of its use; dust peaked at d 7 with PN but continued to decrease with S and to increase with WS through d 14. These data indicate that management of bedding materials varies with type of material and season of year. Use of PN as a bedding material has high potential.     

Effects of Bedding Material on the Lying Behavior in Stabled Horses

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of straw, sawdust, coconut husk (husk), and coconut fiber (fiber) on the welfare of stable horses by observing their resting behavior. Twenty horses with ages ranging from 3 to 21 years were used at the Equine Research Institute of the Japan Racing Association, Utsunomiya, Japan. Five horses were allocated to each bedding condition. The behavior of each horse was recorded by video camera for 3 days and was continuously sampled from 17:00 to 05:00. The total duration, the number of bouts, and the mean and the maximum duration of bouts in standing rest, sternal lying, and lateral lying were calculated and analysed by the Kruskal-Wallis test and post hoc Steel-Dwass test. There was no difference in the standing rest and the sternal lying among beddings. Significant differences were observed in these values in the lateral lying among the different beddings (P<0.05). The values of the means of the total duration, the number of bouts, and the mean and the maximum duration of bout in the lateral lying were greater when husk was used as the bedding material than when sawdust were used (P<0.05). The results of the observations show that the new bedding materials would be as usable as straw. However, lateral lying was observed less frequently when sawdust were used as bedding; this indicates that use of sawdust as bedding material will decrease the welfare of stabled horses.     

Suitability of biocompost as a bedding material for stabled horses: respiratory hygiene and management practicalities

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Bedding material in stables has an important influence on air hygiene and information on the suitability of biocompost and wood shavings is incomplete. OBJECTIVES: To compare the suitability and benefit of biocompost and wood shavings as bedding in horse stables and to determine key air factors for the evaluation of the potential impact of these materials on respiratory health. METHODS: The study was conducted in a naturally ventilated stable with 4 horses. Air hygiene parameters were measured 24 h/day for 7 days with each bedding type: ammonia (NH3), inhalable and respirable dust, endotoxins, colony forming units (CFU) of total mesophilic bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and thermophilic actinomycetes. Both bedding materials were analysed for general chemical composition, particle size distribution and natural microbial content. The animals' behaviour was monitored by video cameras, and their health and cleanliness status determined by clinical and visual examination. RESULTS: Concentrations of NH3, dust, endoxins and fungi were significantly higher during the monitoring period with wood shavings than with biocompost. In contrast concentrations of mesophilic bacteria, mesophilic actinomycetes and thermophilic actinomycetes microbial pollutants were highest with biocompost. The water content of bulk biocompost was considerably higher than that of wood shavings. Particles < or = 0.4 mm were not detectable in bulk wood shavings. The concentration of thermophilic actinomycetes by weight in raw biocompost was 639 times higher than in raw wood shavings. No significant differences were observed in the time spent by the horses lying down. The biocompost material tended to adhere more intensively to the animals' hair coat. Horses showed no clinical signs indicating any adverse effects of the biocompost material during the trials. CONCLUSIONS: Biocompost cannot be recommended as bedding material for horses in stables, because the concentration of thermophilic actinomycetes and other agents that elicit and maintain recurrent airway obstructions was significantly higher with biocompost than with wood shavings. To ensure the well-being of horses, any new bedding material must be tested very carefully before it is introduced to the market.     

Ammonia emissions from broiler litter: response to bedding materials and acidifiers

1. In a pen study, NH(3) flux estimates were performed when clean wheat straw or wood shavings were used as bedding materials in combination with two NH(3) control amendments: sodium bisulphate and a commercial premix of phosphoric + hydrochloric + citric acids. 2. Ammonia emissions from wood shavings were 19% greater than from wheat straw around waterers, but statistically similar around feeders. These results could be due to the greater caking observed when wheat straw was used. 3. Sodium bisulphate reduced NH(3) emissions significantly only in the first half of the rearing period; the loss of efficacy in the second half resulted in total NH(3) volatilisation not statistically different from the untreated control. The treatment containing phosphoric + hydrochloric + citric acids did not have a significant effect in decreasing NH(3) emissions. 4. Bird mortality was not affected by the treatments, but broiler weight gain when wheat straw was used was significantly lower than with wood shavings, which could have been caused by the greater caking observed with wheat straw.     

Area of hock hair loss in dairy cows: Risk factors and correlation with a categorical scale

Data from 3691 dairy cows from 76 farms were used to investigate the risk factors associated with the area of hair loss over the lateral aspect of the hock and the correlation between the area of hair loss (as calculated using a hock map) and hock lesion scores determined using a pre-existing categorical scale. Six factors were associated with a greater area of hair loss, including cows with locomotion score 3, a cleanliness score (10/28 to 18/28), high daily milk yield (25.1–58.1 kg), poor body condition score (1–1.5), duration of winter housing (≥41 days) and some combinations of cubicle base and bedding materials.Compared with cows housed in cubicles with a concrete base and whole straw or rape straw bedding, cows housed in cubicles with concrete bases with sand or chopped straw bedding had smaller areas of hair loss and cows housed on a mattress base with whole straw or rape straw bedding had larger areas of hair loss. Area of hair loss, as measured on hock maps, was not significantly different between cows with score 1 (median 23.6 cm²) and score 2 (median 20.3 cm²) on the categorical scale for hock lesions. This suggests that the categorical scale was not reflecting the extent of hair loss and that hock maps are a good alternative for studying the dynamics of hock lesions over time.     

Evaluating the effects of bedding materials and elevated platforms on contact dermatitis and plumage cleanliness of commercial broilers and on litter condition in broiler houses

1. Experiment 1, comparing wood shavings and ground straw bedding with peat, was performed on 7 broiler farms over two consecutive batches during the winter season. Experiment 2, assessing the effect of elevated (30 cm) platforms, was conducted in three farms replicated with 6 consecutive batches.

2. Footpad lesions were inspected at slaughter following the Welfare Quality® (WQ) assessment and official programme. Hock lesions, plumage cleanliness and litter condition were assessed using the WQ assessment. Litter height, pH, moisture and ammonia were determined.

3. Footpad condition on wood shavings appeared to be worse compared with peat using both methods of assessment and was accompanied by inferior hock skin health. WQ assessment resulted in poorer footpad and hock skin condition on ground straw compared with peat. Farms differed in footpad and hock skin condition. Footpad and hock lesions were not affected by platform treatment. Peat appeared more friable than ground straw. The initial pH of wood shavings was higher and moisture was lower than in peat, but at the end of production period there were no differences. Ground straw exhibited higher initial and lower end pH, and was drier in the beginning than peat. Litter condition and quality were not affected by platform treatment.

4. This study provides new knowledge about the applicability of peat as broiler bedding and shows no negative effects of elevated platforms on litter condition or the occurrence of contact dermatitis in commercial environments. The results suggest a complicated relationship between litter condition, moisture and contact dermatitis. Furthermore, it is concluded that the farmer’s ability to manage litter conditions is important, regardless of the chosen litter material. Peat bedding was beneficial for footpad and hock skin health compared with wood shavings and ground straw.     

Alternative bedding materials and litter depth impact litter moisture and footpad dermatitis

A function of bedding material in poultry houses is to absorb and release moisture. New bedding is commonly placed at inadequate depths in houses. Pine shavings are the industry standard for bedding material in the majority of the United States, but can be hard to obtain or costly. Alternative materials were tested for moisture absorption and retention. Peat moss and chopped wheat straw were found to absorb nearly 8× and 7× their own weight in moisture, respectively. Peat moss was then used in a broiler study and compared to fresh and used pine shavings for 6 weeks. Body weight was lower at d 7 for the used litter and peat moss treatment compared to fresh shavings with no differences at d 42. No differences in ammonia generation or litter pH were observed. Litter moisture was higher for peat moss through d 14. Paws were better in the fresh shaving and peat moss pens than used shaving pens at both d 21 and 42. Next, different depths of used and fresh shavings on footpad dermatitis (FPD) were examined. Trials 1 and 2 compared 2.5, 7.6, and 12.7 cm of fresh shavings or used litter, respectively. In Trial 1, 2.5 cm had higher litter moisture than 7.6 and 12.7 cm at d 21, 28, and 35 (P < 0.05). The 12.7 cm had better paw scores than 2.5 cm at d 21 and 35 (P < 0.05). In Trial 2, 12.7 cm had lower litter moisture than 2.5 cm at d 28, 35, and 42 (P < 0.05). The paws in 12.7 cm were better than those in 2.5 cm at d 35 and 42 (P < 0.05). There was little difference in paw quality and litter moisture between 7.6 and 12.7 cm litter depth in both trials. Peat moss may be an acceptable alternative bedding material and should be evaluated on a commercial scale in areas where it can be obtained economically. These findings suggest that broiler houses should have at least 7.6 cm of litter to control litter moisture levels and reduce FPD.     

Chopped palm leaves as an acceptable bedding material for broiler production

An experiment was conducted to examine the suitability of chopped palm leaves to utilize as a bedding material, compared to wood shavings or wheat straw, on growth performance, immune response, and air quality for broiler production. Three bedding materials were used: wood shavings, chopped palm leaves, and wheat straw. A total of 3,240 one-day-old broiler chicks (Ross 308) was randomly distributed into 3 litter groups (1,080 birds each). Each group had 6 replicate pens (180 birds/pen). All birds were kept under similar environmental conditions, except for bedding material. The obtained results revealed that the growth performance and total mortality rate were not significantly affected by bedding material type. However, using chopped palm leaves as bedding material significantly reduced (P < 0.05) ammonia emission compared to wood shavings and wheat straw (4.1, 7.3 and 8.4 ppm, respectively). A similar trend was observed for settled dust concentration (4.0, 10.3, and 5.9 g/m², respectively). Moreover, an improvement in cell-mediated immunity was observed in boilers kept on chopped palm leaves. Carcass characteristics were not significantly affected by bedding material. It was concluded that chopped palm leaves are a good alternative bedding material to wood shavings and wheat straw in commercial broiler production.     

Investigating duration of nocturnal ingestive and sleep behaviors of horses bedded on straw versus shavings

Horses are stabled overnight for a number of practical reasons; however, there is little research quantifying nocturnal equine behavioral patterns or the extent to which different environments influence nocturnal behavior. The aim of this study was to establish whether differences in duration of sleep and ingestive behaviors were apparent for horses bedded on straw (group 1) or shavings (group 2). Ten geldings of mixed breed (mean age: 7.3 ± 3.53 years) bedded on either shavings (n = 5) or straw (n = 5) were observed between 7 pm and 7 am. Duration of behaviors according to a predefined ethogram was recorded in minutes using a video recorder and continuous focal sampling. Mann–Whitney U tests were used to identify whether any significant differences in duration of ingestion and sleep behaviors occurred for horses bedded on straw compared with shavings. Of the total observation period, group 1 spent, on average, 29.3% of their time budget engaged in recumbent behaviors, compared with 12.2% for group 2. However, no significant differences in duration were established between horses bedded on straw or shavings for standing sleep, sternal recumbency, and lateral recumbency behaviors (P > 0.05). Ingestive behaviors occupied approximately one-third of the time budget, with no significant difference (P > 0.05) observed between groups. On average, group 1 spent a longer proportion of the observation period ingesting bedding (8.1%) compared with group 2 (1%). Duration of bedding ingestion appeared to peak between 1 am and 7 am for both groups. Although not quantified, general observations revealed horses were motivated to alternate between eating hay and bedding in both groups, owing to the prevalence of bedding ingestion. The results indicate that straw bedding facilitates the display of ingestive and sleep behaviors, whereas horses bedded on shavings spent a greater proportion of their nocturnal time budget engaged in “other” behaviors. Further research is required to investigate the extent to which different types of bedding material enrich the environment of horses that are stabled overnight.     

Effects of Different Bedding Materials on the Behavior of Horses Housed in Single Stalls

The effects of three different bedding materials (straw, wood shavings, and straw pellets) on the behavior of six warmblood horses (four mares, two of them with foals) housed in single stalls were analyzed. Each material was used for 2 weeks in three consecutive runs. The behavior of the horses was videotaped and analyzed on the first and last 3 days for each bedding alternative in the last of the three runs. The time budgets for the behaviors including standing, eating, lying, occupation with bedding material, and other were generated. Compared with straw pellets and wood shavings, the application of straw bedding led to a significantly higher frequency and longer duration of occupation with bedding material and in turn, shorter fractions of standing and other behaviors. The total duration of lying was significantly longer on straw than on straw pellets. Straw pellets resulted in the least mean recumbency duration per occurrence of this behavior. Because occupation is one of the important functions that bedding material is supposed to fulfill, we concluded that in regard to horse behavior, straw bedding was the best among the three materials analyzed. Further investigations with a more homogeneous group of probands are necessary to verify the observed behavioral reactions.     

Air hygiene in stables. 1: Effects of stable design, ventilation and management on the concentration of respirable dust

The concentration of fungal spores, the main constituents of respirable dust in stables, is determined by rates of release from fodder and bedding and rate of clearance, principally by ventilation. This paper outlines the principles that govern the application of natural ventilation to the control of air hygiene in barns and individual boxes for horses. When release rates are low, ventilation rates over four air changes per hour are satisfactory. Ventilation was satisfactory in individual boxes but usually unsatisfactory in barns and specific recommendations are made for improvement. Preliminary observations in stables with clean, well-managed bedding revealed only small differences between straw, wood shavings and paper. In these circumstances hay tended to be the major source of respirable spores.     

Generation of Airborne Particles from Different Bedding Materials Used for Horse Keeping

Among other factors (eg, feed), bedding material has an important effect on stable air quality with respect to airborne particle formation. This study was designed to establish which material is suited to create an improved stable environment for horses. First, the following materials were analyzed under standardized conditions in a laboratory experiment: wheat straw, dry wood shavings, hemp shives, linen shives, wheat straw pellets, paper cuttings (unprinted newspaper). The second investigation was carried out under in situ conditions in which three of these bedding materials (wheat straw, wood shavings, and straw pellets) were analyzed under practical conditions. In both experiments, airborne particle concentrations were detected online with the gravimetrically measuring analyzer TEOM 1400a (Rupprecht & Patashnick Co., Franklin, MA). In the laboratory experiment, the TEOM was equipped successively with different inlets to measure the particle fractions PM₁, PM_2.5, PM₁₀, and PM₂₀. During the in situ experiment, only the fraction PM₁₀ was detected. In the laboratory experiment, hemp and linen had the highest generation of airborne particles in all fractions. The lowest particle generation was detected with straw pellets. Results of the in situ investigation supported results of the laboratory experiment with respect to mean particle generation of straw pellets. With an average of 111.2 ± 149.2 μg/m³, it was significantly lower than the mean particle generation of wheat straw with 227.5 ± 280.8 μg/m³. The particle generation of wood shavings had an average of 140.9 ± 141.9 μg/m³ and also was significantly lower than the generation by wheat straw. An activity-correlated variation of particle concentrations was found. In conclusion, taking both experiments into consideration, straw pellets seemed to be suitable for horse stables, to promote an improvement in the stable climate in relation to airborne particle formation.     

Bedding hygiene,cleanliness and lying behaviour for heifers housed on wood chip or straw deep bedding

The aim of this project was to compare the hygienic quality of the bedding, as well as the parasitic load, cleanliness and lying behaviour in heifers kept on either straw or wood chip deep bedding. Fourteen heifers kept in two pens were housed on straw or wood chip bedding for 43 days, after which the bedding material was switched for 43 additional days. Significantly more mould was found in wood chip than in straw and there was a tendency towards less yeast in wood chip. The heifers had a low faecal parasitic load. The results indicate that the wood chip treatment resulted in somewhat cleaner animals. The heifers had a significantly longer total lying time when kept on straw. In conclusion, wood chip deep bedding could be an option as bedding material, but the impact on hygiene of bedding material and lying behaviour needs to be further investigated.     

Characteristics of Gas Generation (NH3, CH4, N2O, CO2, H2O) From Horse Manure Added to Different Bedding Materials Used in Deep Litter Bedding Systems

The aim of this study was to analyze the influence of horse manure added to different bedding materials on the generation of gases (ammonia (NH₃), nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor) from deep litter bedding under standardized laboratory conditions. Two different types of straw (wheat and rye) and wood shavings were analyzed. The deep litter (substrate) was made of 25 kg of the respective bedding material, 60 kg horse feces, and 60 L ammonium chloride solution (urea), and spread out in identical chambers over 19 days (n = 3). On days 1, 8, 15, and 19, total nitrogen, total carbon, and dry matter content of the substrate, as well as the pH in 500-g samples, were measured along with. At the end of each test period, the nitrite nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, and ammonium nitrogen contents of the leachate were analyzed. The wheat straw substrate emitted the highest concentration of NH₃ (4.31 mg/m³; P < .0001) and the wood shavings substrate emitted the lowest (1.73 mg/m³; P < .0001); the rye straw substrate generated 3.05 mg/m³. In addition, significant differences occurred during days 1 to 3 with respect to the generation of the gases NH₃, methane, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, and water vapor, and after the opening of the chamber on day 15. The nitrogen losses through the leachate occurred mainly in the form of nitrate, where the leachate from the wheat straw substrate had a significantly higher amount of nitrate nitrogen (44.56 mg) as compared with the leachates of the rye straw (14.49 mg; P ≤ .0001) and the wood shaving substrates (22.62 mg; P = .0010).     

The influence of bedding on the time horses spend recumbent

To determine if bedding has any influence on the time horses spend recumbent, 8 horses kept on straw and 8 kept on wood shavings were observed from 10:00 to 5:30 for two successive nights. Observations were conducted using time-lapse video recordings. Lying down and rising behavior, as well as frequency and duration of bouts spent in lateral and sternal recumbency, was registered. The results showed that horses on straw were lying in lateral recumbency three times longer than horses on shavings (P < .001), whereas the time horses spent in sternal recumbency did not differ. The longest period of noninterrupted lateral recumbency was longer for horses on straw than for those on shavings. Because horses must lie down, preferably in lateral recumbency, to achieve paradoxical sleep, the reduced time spent in lateral recumbency in horses on wood shavings may affect their welfare and performance. Independent of the bedding, we further observed that, as the horses got up from recumbency, most of them made attempts to roll over before rising. This behavior appeared to be caused by some difficulty in rising, possibly due to the box size, and might have a connection with the fact that horses sometimes get stuck against the box wall.

Introduction

Many riding horses spend the majority of their life in an artificial environment. Horse owners keep their horses under certain conditions because of tradition, because they want to make the horse feel comfortable from a human point of view, or to reduce the amount of work involved in horse husbandry. Often the choice of bedding substrate is made from a subjective point of view without assessing both short-term and long-term effects of the bedding. Part of the reason is that only few studies have analyzed horses' preferences for different bedding substrates and their effect on the time horses spend recumbent. In one study comparing straw and wood shavings, no significant preference was found.[1] In another study comparing plastic, wheat straw, and wood shavings, the time horses spent standing, sleeping, or lying down was not affected significantly by the bedding substrates. [2] Mills et al [3] found that horses, given a choice between straw and wood shavings, spent significantly more time on straw. Whereas the substrates had no significant effect on behaviors such as eating, lying, and standing alert, horses spent more time performing bedding-directed behaviors on straw but more time dozing on shavings. Finally, it has been reported that the use of nonstraw bedding may increase the risk of abnormal behaviors such as weaving. [4]As far as bedding properties are concerned, Airaksinen et al[5] concluded that air quality in the stable and utilization of manure can be improved by selecting a good bedding material. According to Reed and Redhead, [6] both straw and shavings are economical and easy to obtain, and they make a bright, comfortable bed. Straw bales are convenient to store, but may be eaten by the horse, are labor intensive, and may be dusty or contain fungal spores. Wood shavings are not eaten by the horse and are good for respiratory problems but need to be kept very clean because they are porous. In addition, they are not as warm as straw because they do not trap air the way straw does.Electroencephalographic (EEG) studies in cats have demonstrated that sleep can be divided into two stages of differing electrocorticographic (EcoG) patterns, ie, slow-wave-sleep (SWS) and paradoxical sleep (PS).[7] During PS, bursts of rapid eye movements (REM) can be seen at irregular intervals. [8] In humans, dreaming occurs during this stage. [9 and 10] Horses are able to sleep while standing, [11] but in this position they only go into SWS. [14, 15 and 16] During PS there is a complete abolition of muscular tone of antigravity muscles and of neck muscles, as shown in cats. [17] In horses, there is a gradual loss of muscular tone until the middle of the recorded SWS period, whence it decreases to a negligible amount during PS. [15] Consequently, muscular tone disappears entirely at the onset of PS. [18] Horses are unable to complete a sleeping cycle without lying down to enter PS. [8, 19 and 20] They normally fall asleep while standing and, when they feel confident about their environment, lie down in sternocostal recumbency. [8] Thereafter, they proceed to lateral recumbency and enter PS. [14 and 19] Dallaire and Ruckebusch [18] demonstrated that the SWS state was infrequent in the standing animal and most often occurred during sternocostal recumbency with the head resting or not on the ground. PS occurred in both sternocostal and lateral recumbency, although the animal frequently had to readjust its position into sternocostal recumbency due to the disappearance of neck muscular tone.The sleep pattern of horses depends on many circumstances, such as age,[21, 22 and 23] diet, [16] and familiarity with the environment. When horses are put outdoors it may take some days before they lie down. If one horse that is familiar with the environment lies down, the others usually follow. [8 and 13] Dallaire and Ruckebusch [16] subjected three horses to a four-day period of perceptual (visual and auditive) deprivation. After this period total sleep time increased due to an augmentation of both SWS and PS. Finally, there is large individual variation between horses in the time they spend recumbent and sleeping. [15]Horses spend 11% to 20% of the total time in recumbency.[11 and 15] Lateral recumbency represents about 20% of total recumbency time, and uninterrupted periods of lateral recumbency vary from 1 to 13 minutes (mean, 4.6 min). [14 and 16] Steinhart [11] found that the mean length of uninterrupted lateral recumbency periods was 23 minutes, the longest period being one hour. Total sleeping time in the stabled horse averages 3 to 5 hours per day or 15% of the total time. [8, 13 and 16] Keiper and Keenan [24] found similar time budgets in feral horses that were recumbent approximately 26% of the night. PS is about 17% to 25% of total sleeping time, and the mean length of a single PS period is 4 to 4.8 minutes. [13 and 18]In stabled horses sleep is mainly nocturnal and occurs during three to seven periods during the night.[8, 13 and 16] Ruckebusch [13] observed that neither sleep nor recumbency occurred during daytime in three ponies observed for a month and, in another experiment conducted on horses, PS occurred only during nighttime. [15] A group of ponies observed for more than a month between 8:45 and 4:45 spent only 1% of the daytime recumbent.[25] The maximum concentration of sleep occurs from 12:00 to 4:00 .[8, 16, 18 and 24]The purpose of this study was to examine two groups of horses in a familiar environment, one group kept on a bedding consisting of straw, and the other kept on wood shavings, and to determine if there was any difference between the two groups in the time they spend recumbent.

Materials and methods

Housing. The study was conducted in one of the biggest riding clubs in Denmark, housing about 150 horses. The 18 horses used in the study stood in three different parts of the stable. They were all stabled in boxes measuring 3 × 3 m and subjected to the same feeding and management routine. They were unable to see their next-door neighbor because of a tall wooden board, but they were able to see the horses stabled on the opposite side of the corridor through bars. Nine horses were stabled on wheat straw (15 cm long, dry matter content 87-88%) and nine on oven-dried wood shavings (80% spruce and 20% pine, dry matter content 82%).Animals. All horses used in the study were privately owned. They had been kept in the boxes in which they were observed a minimum of three weeks. Three of the horses were mares and 15 were geldings. Most of them were Danish Warmblood used for dressage riding. Their ages ranged from 5 to 18 years (mean, 10.6 y) and their height ranged from 1.60 to 1.76 m (mean, 1.68 m). All horses wore a blanket. Age and sex distribution between the two groups is shown in Table 1.     

Quality of different bedding materials and their influence on the compostability of horse manure

The air quality of the stable and management and composting of manure can be improved by choosing bedding material with certain desirable properties. The optimal bedding material doesn't cause hygiene problems in the stable. It absorbs ammonia, is economic in use, and decomposes quickly with manure. The objective of this trial was to compare both quality of different bedding materials and their influence on the composting process of horse manure. Bedding materials used in the study were wood chips, straw, peat, hemp, linen, sawdust, shredded newspaper and the mixtures, peat/wood chips, peat/sawdust, and peat/straw. Peat and peat mixtures had the best quality of ammonia absorption, water holding, and manure fertilization value. The number of fungi and bacteria were lower in shredded newspaper and wooden materials than in straw, linen, hemp, and peat. The composting temperature became high enough for at least a partial destruction of parasites and seeds within the rubbish heaps in all boxes. Only peat manure was ready for further plant production after one month's composting period. Other bedding materials were decomposed only partially or not at all during the study.     

Effect of Feeding Endophyte-Infected Feed and Bedding on the Performance of Broilers

Two varieties of chopped grass seed straw, tall fescue (Festuca arundinaces L.) and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), were identified as alternative sources to wood sawdust or shavings as bedding for use by Pacific Northwest broiler producers. However, some broiler growers expressed concern that straw may be contaminated with endophytes, symbiotic fungi that are known to be toxic to livestock. The primary toxic compound of concern for livestock in endophyte infected grass straw is ergovaline.Two experiments were conducted to determine if broiler performance was affected by either the feeding of endophyte infected grass seed containing ergovaline, or rearing broilers on endophyte infected grass seed straw. The exposure of broilers to either endophyte-infected chopped straw as bedding and/or feeding endophyte infected ground grass seed in the diet with ergovaline levels as high as 423 ppb, did not significantly affect performance or the micro anatomy of kidney or liver tissues.     

Evaluation of Factors Influencing the Generation of Ammonia in Different Bedding Materials Used for Horse Keeping

Bedding material is an important factor in determining stable air quality in terms of ammonia formation. The objective of this study was to analyze different bedding materials used for horse stables under standardized conditions, to determine which material is best suited for improving the climate of a stable. The particular concern was a reduction in gaseous ammonia concentrations. Therefore, the following materials were examined: wheat straw, wood shavings, hemp shives, linen shives, wheat straw pellets, and paper cuttings. Twelve containers were constructed in an environmentally controlled room, and the same material was placed into two containers, with the amount of material used being determined by its carbon content. A defined ratio of horse manure/urine mixture was added daily to each container over a period of 14 days. The concentrations of gaseous ammonia, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and water vapor were measured continuously above the bedding within the containers. Means of gaseous ammonia were found to be 178.0 mg/m³ for wheat straw, 155.2 mg/m³ for wood shavings, 144.6 mg/m³ for hemp, 133.7 mg/m³ for linen, 60.3 mg/m³ for straw pellets, and 162.6 mg/m³ for paper cuttings. In conclusion, the results of this study have shown that straw pellets are suitable for horse stables, not only to improve air quality but also, first and foremost, in relation to ammonia binding and ammonia transformation within the bedding material, respectively. However, straw pellets may also have disadvantages. The high substrate temperatures that were measured in straw pellets could favor the growth of pathologic germs that can adversely affect animals' health.     

Effect of less intensive rearing conditions on litter characteristics, growth performance, carcase injuries and meat quality of broilers

1. The objective was to compare the effect of two litter types (wheat straw and wood shavings) and two different rearing conditions (Treated and Control) on welfare indicators, broiler performance, carcase injuries, particularly hock and foot pad dermatitis (FPD), litter characteristics and meat quality. 2. Treated conditions were characterised by a low stocking density (11 birds/m(2)), short photoperiod (16 h light: 8 h dark) and a large amount of litter (3 to 4.5 kg/m(2), respectively, for wheat straw or wood shavings). Control conditions were a high stocking density (14 birds/m(2)), long photoperiod (23 h light:1 h dark) and small amount of litter (2.3 to 3 kg/m(2), respectively, for wheat straw or wood shavings). In addition, the effects of two widely used litter materials, wheat straw and wood shavings, were investigated. 3. The combined effects of lower stocking density, greater amount of litter material and a photoperiod similar to the natural one, reduced the occurrence of FPD in Treated groups keeping the FPD score under the European threshold. 4. Improved rearing conditions led to faster growth rate associated with inferior feed efficiency, whereas litter type exerted negligible effects on broiler performance. 5. Litter moisture content, nitrogen and ammonia released by the litter were lower in Treated groups than Control groups. The use of wood shavings resulted in lower moisture and nitrogen concentrations in the litter.     

Effects of bedding type on compost quality of equine stall waste: implications for small horse farms

Our objective in this study is to compare 4 of the most common bedding materials used by equine operations on the chemical and physical characteristics of composted equine stall waste. Twelve Standardbred horses were adapted to the barn and surrounding environment for 2 wk before the start of the study. Groups of 3 horses were bedded on 1 of 4 different bedding types (wood shavings, pelletized wood materials, long straw, and pelletized straw) for 16 h per day for 18 d. Stalls were cleaned by trained staff daily, and all contents removed were weighed and stored separately by bedding material on a level covered concrete pad for the duration of the study. Compost piles were constructed using 3 replicate piles of each bedding type in a randomized complete block design. Each pile was equipped with a temperature sensor and data logger. Water was added and piles were turned weekly throughout the 100-d compost process. Initial and final samples were taken, dried, and analyzed for DM mass, OM, inorganic nitrogen (nitrate-N and ammonium-N), electrical conductivity, and soluble (plant-available) nutrients. Data were analyzed using the GLM procedure, and means were separated using Fischer's protected LSD test (P < 0.05). No significant temperature differences were observed among the bedding materials. The composting process resulted in significant reductions (P < 0.05) in DM mass for each of the 4 bedding materials. The composting process resulted in significant reductions (P < 0.05) in OM and C:N ratio for all 4 bedding materials. The composted long straw material had greater concentrations of total Kjeldahl nitrogen (P < 0.05), nitrate-N (P < 0.05), and ammonium-N (P < 0.05) than the composted wood shavings. This study demonstrated that incorporating a simple aerobic composting system may greatly reduce the overall volume of manure and yield a material that is beneficial for land application in pasture-based systems. The straw-based materials may be better suited for composting and subsequent land application; however, factors such as suitability of the bedding material for equine use, material cost, labor, and availability must be considered when selecting a bedding material.