The interactions between piperonyl butoxide and E4, a resistance‐associated esterase from the peach‐potato aphid,Myzus persicae Sulzer (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

BACKGROUND: It has been reported previously that piperonyl butoxide (PBO) can inhibit both P450 and esterase activity. Although the method by which PBO combines with cytochrome P450 has been identified, the way in which it acts as an esterase inhibitor has not been established. This paper characterises the interactions between PBO and the resistance‐associated esterase in Myzus persicae, E4. RESULTS: After incubation with PBO/analogues, hydrolysis of 1‐naphthyl acetate by E4 is increased, but sequestration of azamethiphos is reduced. Rudimentary in silico modelling suggests PBO docks at the lip of the aromatic gorge. CONCLUSIONS: PBO binds with E4 to accelerate small substrates to the active‐site triad, while acting as a blockade to larger, insecticidal molecules. Structure–activity studies with analogues of PBO also reveal the essential chemical moieties present in the molecule. © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry     

Mitochondrial impacts of insecticidal formate esters in insecticide‐resistant and insecticide‐susceptible Drosophila melanogaster

BACKGROUND: Previous research on insecticidal formate esters in flies and mosquitoes has documented toxicity profiles, metabolism characteristics and neurological impacts. The research presented here investigated mitochondrial impacts of insecticidal formate esters and their hydrolyzed metabolite formic acid in the model dipteran insect Drosophila melanogaster Meig. These studies compared two Drosophila strains: an insecticide‐susceptible strain (Canton‐S) and a strain resistant by cytochrome P450 overexpression (Hikone‐R). RESULTS: In initial studies investigating inhibition of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase, two proven insecticidal materials (hydramethylnon and sodium cyanide) caused significant inhibition. However, for insecticidal formate esters and formic acid, no significant inhibition was identified in either fly strain. Mitochondrial impacts of formate esters were then investigated further by tracking toxicant‐induced cytochrome c release from mitochondria into the cytoplasm, a biomarker of apoptosis and neurological dysfunction. Formic acid and three positive control treatments (rotenone, antimycin A and sodium cyanide) induced cytochrome c release, verifying that formic acid is capable of causing mitochondrial disruption. However, when comparing formate ester hydrolysis and cytochrome c release between Drosophila strains, formic acid liberation was only weakly correlated with cytochrome c release in the susceptible Canton‐S strain (r² = 0.70). The resistant Hikone‐R strain showed no correlation (r² < 0.0001) between formate ester hydrolysis and cytochrome c release. CONCLUSION: The findings of this study provide confirmation of mitochondrial impacts by insecticidal formate esters and suggest links between mitochondrial disruption, respiratory inhibition, apoptosis and formate‐ester‐induced neurotoxicity. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Purification and characterisation of proteins secreted by the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae with insecticidal activity against adults of the Mediterranean fruit fly,Ceratitis capitata (Diptera: Tephritidae)

BACKGROUND: The control of the Mediterranean fruit fly (medfly) Ceratitis capitata (Wied) is usually performed with protein bait sprays incorporating chemical insecticides that may have adverse effects on humans, non‐target organisms and the environment. In recent years, scientists have sought more environmentally friendly insecticides for medfly control, such as plant‐ and microorganism‐derived compounds. Among these compounds, entomopathogenic fungi are an unexplored source of natural insecticides. RESULTS: The crude soluble protein extract (CSPE) of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (Mestch.) (strain EAMa 01/58‐Su) shows chronic insecticidal activity when administered per os. Mortality in flies exhibits a dose response. The CSPE produces an antifeedant effect in adult flies, a result probably due to a progressive deterioration of the fly midgut after ingestion of the extract. Protease and temperature treatments show that insecticidal activity against C. capitata is due to proteinaceous compounds that are highly thermostable. Four monomeric proteins from this crude extract have been purified by liquid chromatography and gel electroelution. Although all four monomers seem to be involved in the insecticidal activity of the CSPE, the 15 kDa and the 11 kDa proteins appear to be mainly responsible for the observed insecticidal effect. CONCLUSIONS: Four new fungal proteins with insecticidal activity have been purified and identified. These proteins might be combined with insect baits for C. capitata biocontrol. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Contact and fumigant activities of constituents of Foeniculum vulgare fruit against three coleopteran stored‐product insects

The insecticidal activities of materials derived from the fruit of fennel, Foeniculum vulgare, against adults of Sitophilus oryzae, Callosobruchus chinensis and Lasioderma serricorne were examined using direct contact application and fumigation methods. The biologically active constituents of the Foeniculum fruits were characterized as the phenylpropenes (E)‐anethole and estragole, and the monoterpene (+)‐fenchone, by spectroscopic analysis. Responses varied with insect species, compound, dose and exposure time. In a filter paper diffusion test, estragole at 0.168 mg cm^?2 caused 91% mortality to S oryzae adults within 1 day after treatment (DAT), whereas (+)‐fenchone and (E)‐anethole gave over 90% mortality at 2 and 4 DAT, respectively. Against C chinensis adults, all test compounds revealed potent insecticidal activities at 0.021 mg cm^?2 at 2 DAT. Against L serricorne adults at 0.105 mg cm^?2, (E)‐anethole gave 100% mortality at 1 DAT, whereas 90 and 60% mortality at 4 DAT was achieved with estragole and (+)‐fenchone, respectively. In a fumigation test, the test compounds were much more effective against adults of S oryzae, C chinensis and L serricorne in closed cups than in open ones, indicating that the insecticidal activity of test compounds was largely attributable to fumigant action. As naturally occurring insect‐control agents, the F vulgare fruit‐derived materials described could be useful for managing field populations of S oryzae, C chinensis and L serricorne. © 2001 Society of Chemical Industry     

Insect midgut structures and molecules as targets of plant‐derived protease inhibitors and lectins

The midgut of insects is involved in digestion, osmoregulation and immunity. Although several defensive strategies are present in this organ, its organization and function may be disturbed by some insecticidal agents, including bioactive proteins like lectins and protease inhibitors (PIs) from plants. PIs interfere with digestion, leading to poor nutrient absorption and decreasing amino acid bioavailability. Intake of PIs can delay development, cause deformities and reduce fertility. Ingestion of PIs may lead to changes in the set of proteases secreted in the insect gut, but this response is often insufficient and results in aggravation of the malnutrition status. Lectins are proteins that are able to interact with glycoconjugates, including those linked to cell surfaces. Their effects on the midgut include disruption of the peritrophic matrix, brush border and secretory cell layer; induction of apoptosis and oxidative stress; interference with nutrient absorption and transport proteins; and damaging effects on symbionts. In addition, lectins can cross the intestinal barrier and reach the hemolymph. The establishment of resistant insect populations due to selective pressure resulting from massive use of a bioactive protein is an actual possibility, but this can be minimized by the multiple mode‐of‐action of these proteins, mainly the lectins. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry     

Bacillus thuringiensis vegetative insecticidal protein family Vip3A and mode of action against pest Lepidoptera

Vip3A proteins are widely used for controlling pest Lepidoptera. Different binding sites with different receptors in the insect midgut membrane and lack of cross‐resistance with crystal (Cry) proteins enhance their applicability, as both single proteins and proteins pyramided with Cry proteins in transgenic Bt crops. Vip3A proteins are effective but there is relatively little information about their structure, function, activation, specificity, and mode of action. In addition, the mechanism of insect resistance to these proteins is unknown. Phylogenetic analysis and multiple sequence alignment showed that Vip3A proteins are genetically distant from Cry proteins. The mode of action and insecticidal activity of Vip3A proteins are discussed in this review. This review also provides detailed information about the Vip3A protein family that may aid in the design of more efficient pest management strategies in response to insect resistance to insecticidal proteins. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry     

Evaluation of natural diatomaceous earth deposits from south‐eastern Europe for stored‐grain protection: the effect of particle size

BACKGROUND: The use of diatomaceous earths (DEs) provides a promising alternative to the use of contact insecticides in stored‐product IPM. Geographical origin and the physical properties of a given DE may affect its insecticidal activity. In the present study, DE samples were collected from different locations of south‐eastern Europe, and their efficacy was evaluated in the laboratory against Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) (Coleoptera: Cucujiidae), Sitophilus oryzae (L.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae). In addition, three fractions comprising particles of different size were obtained from each DE sample and assessed with regards to their effectiveness against the above stored‐product insect pests. RESULTS: DE from the Greek region of Elassona was the most effective against C. ferrugineus and S. oryzae, whereas the DE Kolubara 518, mined in the Serbian region of Kolubara, was the most effective against R. dominica. Smaller particles were more effective than larger particles against the three tested species, although significant differences in the efficacy of fractions containing particles of 0–150 µm and particles with sizes of < 45 µm were not always recorded. CONCLUSIONS: Deposits from south‐eastern Europe appeared to be very effective against the tested species, and therefore this region should be further evaluated as a source of development of commercial products. Particle size is a physical property that should always be taken into account during the DE manufacturing process, as it can strongly influence the insecticidal action of a given product. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Genetically engineering better fungal biopesticides

Microbial insect pathogens offer an alternative means of pest control with the potential to wean us off our heavy reliance on chemical pesticides. Insect pathogenic fungi play an important natural role in controlling disease vectors and agricultural pests. Most commercial products employ Ascomycetes in the genera Metarhizium and Beauveria. However, their utilization has been limited by inconsistent field results as a consequence of sensitivity to abiotic stresses and naturally low virulence. Other naturally occurring biocontrol agents also face these hurdles to successful application, but the availability of complete genomes and recombinant DNA technologies have facilitated design of multiple fungal pathogens with enhanced virulence and stress resistance. Many natural and synthetic genes have been inserted into entomopathogen genomes. Some of the biggest gains in virulence have been obtained using genes encoding neurotoxic peptides, peptides that manipulate host physiology and proteases and chitinases that degrade the insect cuticle. Prokaryotes, particularly extremophiles, are useful sources of genes for improving entomopathogen resistance to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. These biological insecticides are environmentally friendly and cost‐effective insect pest control options. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry     

应用昆虫毒素基因构建重组病毒杀虫剂研究进展

由于基因工程技术的发展和安全性研究的深入,以重组杆状病毒为主的重组昆虫病毒杀虫剂的应用正面临着突破。文章综述了通过插入昆虫专一性毒素基因构建重组昆虫病毒杀虫剂的技术路线,展望重组病毒杀虫剂的发展趋势。     

Managing leaf‐cutting ants: peculiarities,trends and challenges

Leaf‐cutting ants are generally recognized as important pest species in Neotropical America. They are eusocial insects that exhibit social organization, foraging, fungus‐cultivation, hygiene and a complex nest structure, which render their management notoriously difficult. A lack of economic thresholds and sampling plans focused on the main pest species preclude the management of leaf‐cutting ants; such management would facilitate their control and lessen insecticide overuse, particularly the use of insecticidal baits. Recent restrictions on the use of synthetic compounds for such purposes impose additional challenges for the management of leaf‐cutting ants. Considerable effort has been exerted regarding these challenges, which are addressed herein, but which also remain challenges that are yet to be conquered. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry     

RNAi‐mediated plant protection against aphids

Aphids (Aphididae) are major agricultural pests that cause significant yield losses of crop plants each year by inflicting damage both through the direct effects of feeding and by vectoring harmful plant viruses. Expression of double‐stranded RNA (dsRNA) directed against suitable insect target genes in transgenic plants has been shown to give protection against pests through plant‐mediated RNA interference (RNAi). Thus, as a potential alternative and effective strategy for insect pest management in agricultural practice, plant‐mediated RNAi for aphid control has received close attention in recent years. In this review, the mechanism of RNAi in insects and the so far explored effective RNAi target genes in aphids, their potential applications in the development of transgenic plants for aphid control and the major challenges in this regard are reviewed, and the future prospects of using plant‐mediated RNAi for aphid control are discussed. This review is intended to be a helpful insight into the generation of aphid‐resistant plants through plant‐mediated RNAi strategy. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry     

Growth variation among Bacillus thuringiensis strains can affect screening procedures for supernatant‐secreted toxins against insect pests

BACKGROUND: Supernatant‐secreted proteins in Bacillus thuringiensis (Berliner) (Bt) with insecticidal activity provide an important source of information for discovery of new useful strains and/or entomotoxins. However, physiological variation among isolates might interfere in the detection efficiency of screening procedures on Bt collections. The aim of this study was to assess the magnitude of this variation in a sample of isolates from a tropical Bt collection, which was gauged through the assessment of their temporal patterns of growth and protein secretion in culture supernatants (SNs), as well as of the corresponding toxicity against fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda, JE Smith). Feeding bioassays were performed, with larvae being treated with heated and non‐heated total protein extracted from SNs collected at different culture times. Larva mortality and reduction in pupa formation were observed. RESULTS: Intra‐ and interisolate variations were observed in the temporal patterns of growth, quality and quantity of protein secreted, as well as in insecticidal activity of these SNs, based on larvae mortality and pupation rates. These results suggest that the insecticidal potential of certain isolates can be hidden if comparisons are done on the basis of the same number of cells in the culture and/or the same culturing time. CONCLUSIONS: Methods of screening Bt collections on the basis of feeding bioassays can be misleading with regards to identifying more promising isolates for biocontrol purposes if physiological differences are not considered. The consequences and implications of these findings for the development of experimental systems that depend on toxicity bioassays to identify alternative Bt strains and entomotoxins with practical applicability have been discussed. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

对半翅目害虫具有活性的Bt杀虫蛋白研究进展

半翅目害虫寄主范围广、危害时间长, 给我国农林业生产带来了严重的经济损失。应用有效的绿色防控手段替代化学杀虫剂防治半翅目害虫, 对于保障粮食安全生产、保护动物及人类生命健康、维护生态平衡具有重要意义。苏云金芽胞杆菌Bacillus thuringiensis产生的杀虫蛋白对多种害虫展现出高效特异的杀虫活性, 对非靶标生物安全, 为全球农业、林业和卫生害虫的绿色防控做出了突出贡献。本文综述了我国农林业中重要的半翅目害虫种类、危害特点及主要防治手段, 重点归纳了Bt杀虫蛋白对半翅目害虫的杀虫活性研究进展以及挖掘具有半翅目杀虫活性的Bt杀虫蛋白基础, 并针对Bt杀虫蛋白在半翅目害虫绿色防控方面的应用提出了建议。     

利用化学激发子防控作物害虫研究进展

诱导防御反应是植物抵御害虫为害的一种重要机制。在这一防御机制中,各种化学激发子,包括植食性昆虫相关分子模式、植物激素及其类似物、植物激发子多肽等发挥着重要作用。合理开发利用这些化学激发子,可望帮助植物建立一种天然的防御体系,从而降低害虫种群密度、减轻害虫为害,减少化学农药使用量。本文将主要对诱导植物抗虫性的化学激发子的最新研究成果进行概述,并展示利用化学激发子防控田间作物害虫的最新研究案例,提出亟待解决的问题,以促进化学激发子在作物害虫防控中的应用。     

Manipulating behaviour with substrate‐borne vibrations – potential for insect pest control

This review presents an overview of the potential use of substrate‐borne vibrations for the purpose of achieving insect pest control in the context of integrated pest management. Although the importance of mechanical vibrations in the life of insects has been fairly well established, the effect of substrate‐borne vibrations has historically been understudied, in contrast to sound sensu stricto. Consequently, the idea of using substrate‐borne vibrations for pest control is still in its infancy. This review therefore focuses on the theoretical background, using it to highlight potential applications in a field environment, and lists the few preliminary studies that have been or are being performed. Conceptual similarities to the use of sound, as well as limitations inherent in this approach, are also noted. © 2014 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.     

Improved insect‐proofing: expressing double‐stranded RNA in chloroplasts

RNA interference (RNAi) was discovered almost 20 years ago and has been exploited worldwide to silence genes in plants and animals. A decade later, it was found that transforming plants with an RNAi construct targeting an insect gene could protect the plant against feeding by that insect. Production of double‐stranded RNA (dsRNA) in a plant to affect the viability of a herbivorous animal is termed trans‐kingdom RNAi (TK‐RNAi). Since this pioneering work, there have been many further examples of successful TK‐RNAi, but also reports of failed attempts and unrepeatable experiments. Recently, three laboratories have shown that producing dsRNA in a plant's chloroplast, rather than in its cellular cytoplasm, is a very effective way of delivering TK‐RNAi. Our review examines this potentially game‐changing approach and compares it with other transgenic insect‐proofing schemes. © 2018 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.     

Surveillance techniques for non‐native insect pest detection*

The risk of introduction of new insect pest species is growing with the increase in passenger travel and the trade in plant products worldwide. Though effective detection methods exist in a number of cases, only some of them are applied in practice through organized networks. This paper reviews the detection tools available for insect pests, based on commonly available attractants and trapping systems. Chemical attractants are divided into powerful attractants (such as pheromones and para‐pheromones), attractants of lower intensity (such as kairomones and food attractants), and their combinations. Physical attractants are also considered, such as visual cues, which are generally used in combination with olfactory attractants, and light traps. Finally, the diversity of trapping systems is also presented in relation to attractants, trap design and target species.     

Does genetic variability in weeds respond to non‐chemical selection pressure in arable fields?

At a time when herbicide use is being challenged by the selection of herbicide‐resistant weeds, reliance on other, innovative weed control strategies is becoming increasingly necessary. However, one may question the sustainability of these novel farming practices if weeds adapt rapidly to these non‐chemical selection pressures. Although farmers and agronomists impose many selective processes through farming practices, there is a paucity of literature demonstrating these selection cases in arable fields. In contrast to the relatively simple case of herbicide resistance, random trait association and variability in selection pressures in field conditions could explain why there are so few clear examples of adaptive processes to non‐chemical control in arable fields.     

两种蜘蛛毒素肽与苏云金芽胞杆菌Cry1Ac蛋白的融合表达及杀虫活性

蜘蛛毒液中含有多种杀虫肽,因而具有较强的杀虫作用,可迅速杀死农林害虫。蜘蛛毒素肽（ω-ACTX-Hv1a,ω-ACTX-Hv2a）是从澳大利亚的多能厚爪蛛Hadronyche versuta的毒液中分离获得,对昆虫有毒但对哺乳动物无毒。本文通过将人工合成的两种蜘蛛肽基因（hv1a、hv2a）与来源于对棉铃虫具有高活性的苏云金芽胞杆菌（Bacillus thuringiensis,Bt）野生菌株NBIC380中的杀虫基因cry1Ac进行融合并在NBIC380中表达,获得了7种不同的重组菌株BtBM-Ve（含有空表达载体）、BtBM-Ac（含有cry1Ac基因）、BtBM-1a（含有hv1a基因）、BtBM-2a（含有hv2a基因）、BtA1a（含有cry1Ac+hv1a融合基因）、BtA2a（含有cry1Ac+hv2a融合基因）和BtA（1+2）a（含有cry1Ac+hv1a+hv2a融合基因）。重组菌分别进行了棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigera 2龄幼虫、秀丽隐杆线虫Caenorhabditis elegans和朱砂叶螨Tetranychus cinnabarinus的生物活性测定,结果显示BtBM-Ve无杀虫增效作用,BtBM-Ac、BtBM-1a、BtBM-2a、BtA1a、BtA2a和BtA（1+2）a针对不同的虫源具有不同的杀虫增效活性,对3种害虫杀虫增效最多的重组菌是BtA（1+2）a,对棉铃虫2龄幼虫杀虫增效百分比为93.43%,对秀丽隐杆线虫为34.48%,对朱砂叶螨为13.46%。本文构建的基因工程菌对防治鳞翅目害虫、螨虫和线虫具有重要的理论意义和应用前景。