Varying the timing of oyster transplant: implications for management from simulation studies

The transplanting of oysters from one ground to another is a common practice in the oyster industry. In Delaware Bay, for instance, oysters are typically transplanted from upper-bay low-salinity seed beds onto lower-bay leased grounds for growth and conditioning before market. The higher salinity on the leased grounds, however, also favours higher losses to predation and disease. A coupled oyster–Perkinsus marinus–predator model was used to investigate how varying the timing of transplant affects the ultimate yield of Eastern oysters, Crassostrea virginica, in Delaware Bay. Simulations were run in which oysters were moved from seed beds to leased grounds in November, January, March, April and May. The number of market-size (≥ 76 mm) adults available for harvest in the following July to November was compared for populations undergoing mortality from predation (crabs, oyster drills) and/or disease (Perkinsus marinus). In all simulations, the abundance of market-size oysters declined between July and November. However, transplanting oysters in November resulted in the largest yield of market-size oysters for all harvest times; transplanting in May resulted in the smallest yield. The autumn transplant allows oysters to benefit from the larger spring phytoplankton bloom over the leased grounds in the lower estuary. The effect of varying the season of transplant was most noticeable if oysters were harvested early (July or August). In all simulations, transplanting resulted in a higher abundance of market-size oysters than direct harvest from the seed beds. Direct harvest would rarely be advantageous if the cost of transplant were insignificant and the relative rates of mortality were as stipulated. However, a May transplant is only moderately better than a direct harvest and the economic benefits of either option are likely to be determined by the cost of transplanting and the mortality associated with the process. In the same vein, the decision as to when to harvest relies on balancing the increased price obtained for oysters in the autumn with the increased loss owing to predation and disease. Awaiting an autumn harvest is clearly much riskier if the principal source of mortality is disease rather than predation, because disease mortality is concentrated on the market-size oysters and is greatest in the autumn.     

Seasonal variations in the immunological and physiological parameters of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas cultured in Bahía de Macapule (Sinaloa,Mexico)

Triploid Crassostrea gigas were cultured during 13 months in Nestier‐type oyster trays. The impact of environmental parameters on the physiological and immunological parameters was evaluated. Temperature, salinity and seston were recorded monthly. Seventeen oysters were sampled monthly for immunological and condition index (CI) analyses. Samples were obtained as a haemolymph lysate supernatant (HLS). Protein content was determined using the Bradford method. The activity of hydrolytic enzymes was determined using the API ZYM kit and the lysoplate assay. Seston showed different patterns throughout the cycle. Condition index showed a positive correlation with the protein content of HLS. Protein showed a negative correlation with temperature. Eleven hydrolytic enzymes were detected in samples and higher enzymatic activity corresponded to leucine arylamidase and esterase. Leucine arylamidase and lysozyme activity showed a positive correlation with temperature. Oyster mortality was 28% in our modules and 70% in the oyster farm. Oysters showed low values of CI and haemolymph protein content in summer–autumn when mortalities were observed in the culture system. This finding suggests that these stressed oysters may have insufficient energy to invest in their immune system. It appears that oyster mortality in the culture system resulted from a combination of animal overcrowding, high temperature and low salinity.     

广西茅尾海的香港巨牡蛎(Crassostrea hongkongensis)在不同养殖区的性腺发育变化

为探究香港巨牡蛎(Crassostrea hongkongensis)的繁殖特性以及春季死亡原因,采用肉眼观察、活体镜检和组织切片方法研究了茅尾海沙井的香港巨牡蛎苗种吊养于大风江黄场的1龄牡蛎的性腺发育周年变化,并建立了快速判断香港巨牡蛎性腺发育程度的方法.对比分析了吊养在茅尾海沙井、大风江入海口内的黄场和入海口外的鑫丰场的2龄牡蛎性腺发育的启动和发展过程.结果显示,广西茅尾海的香港巨牡蛎每年只有1个繁殖周期,性腺发育过程可划分为未分化期(1-3月)、分化期(4月)、成熟排放期(5-10月)及休止期(11-12月)4个阶段;1龄和2龄牡蛎的性腺发育基本同步;大风江入海口外的牡蛎的性腺发育较入海口内的牡蛎提前约15d,而比茅尾海内海的牡蛎提前约30 d,入海口外的牡蛎的性腺4月即发育到成熟排放期,冬季饵料的丰富程度和温度、盐度等因素可能是造成这种差异的原因.研究还发现,高温少雨天气下,海水盐度高,抑制了牡蛎性细胞的排放,导致入海口外侧吊养牡蛎的大规模死亡,濒临死亡的牡蛎性腺处于退化和崩解状态.鉴于此,认为4月初即需密切监测吊养于入海口外的牡蛎性腺的发育状况和天气状况,及时收获性腺饱满的牡蛎,或将吊养牡蛎的蚝排放置在河流入海口内区域过冬.     

Resistance of Dermo in eastern oysters, Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin), of North Carolina but not Chesapeake Bay Heritage

Growth, intensity of Perkinsus marinus (Levine) infection, and survival of synchronously spawned North Carolina (NC) and Chesapeake Bay‐heritage (CB) oysters, Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin) were evaluated under standard tray culture conditions at several sites in both regions (Wye River, Maryland; Mobjack Bay, Virginia; Pamlico River, NC and Bogue Banks, NC). Infection prevalence reached 100% in oysters held at all high‐ and moderate‐salinity sites, at which time the CB strain ceased to grow. Shortly after growth ceased, CB oysters exhibited mortality that rapidly progressed to 100%. Unlike the CB strain, growth continued in the NC strain despite high P. marinus prevalence. When mortality did occur in the NC strain, at a reduced rate of 37–40%, it was associated with higher intensity of P. marinus than the infection intensity correlated with death of CB oysters. At the low‐salinity site in NC, P. marinus infection persisted at low weighted prevalence throughout the latter portion of the culture period but was not associated with mortality of either strain. These trends in growth and disease resistance for the two strains demonstrate that aquaculture performance is related to the level of disease resistance in oyster strains, salinity of water in growing areas and virulence of P. marinus.     

Evaluation of resistance to Dermo in eastern oyster strains tested in Chesapeake Bay

We investigated growth, Dermo disease, and survival for nine groups of oysters, Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin) cultivated in Chesapeake Bay (CB). Five regional strains (upper CB, North Carolina (NC), South Carolina (SC), Louisiana (LA) and LA triploids) and four additional hybrid strains (CB oysters mated with NC, SC, LA and Texas (TX) oysters) were held in floating rafts at three locations representative of lower CB: ‘low’ salinity (3–14 g L^?1), ‘moderate’ salinity (5–20 g L^?1) and ‘high’ salinity (14–24 g L^?1). At each site, patterns of growth and incidence of infection with Perkinsus marinus (Levine), the causative agent of Dermo disease, were similar. However, mortality trends were markedly different at each site; the CB strain being notable for accelerated mortality following infection with P. marinus. In addition, hybrids between CB and all four of the regional strains exhibited similar accelerated mortality in response to infection. Mortality was strongly correlated with infection only at the high salinity site implicating interaction of differences in both oyster strain and virulence of Dermo between moderate and high salinity areas as factors in differential mortality across sites.     

Shell shape and meat condition in selectively bred Sydney rock oysters,Saccostrea glomerata (Gould, 1850): The influence of grow‐out methods

The Australian edible oyster industry has been severely impacted by disease and declining yields since the 1970s. Selective breeding of Saccostrea glomerata is one measure addressing these problems by producing fast‐growing, disease‐resistant oysters. Farmers report that selected oysters have different growth characteristics than their wild counterparts using conventional grow‐out methods. This study investigated how different grow‐out methods influence commercially valuable oyster characteristics including shell length, shape, surface growth deformities and meat condition. In June 2015, selectively bred S. glomerata spat were deployed in two estuaries (Hawkesbury River and Georges River) in NSW, Australia, using three grow‐out methods (fixed trays, Stanway cylinders and floating baskets). In November 2015, oysters were transferred among grow‐out methods to test for the effects of changing grow‐out methods on oyster growth patterns. Oysters transferred from baskets to cylinders and from trays to cylinders had, on average, deeper and wider shells, a higher meat condition and fewer shell surface deformities than oysters in other grow‐out method combinations. However, these oysters were smaller than oysters not grown in cylinders. While there were some differences in growth patterns between the estuaries, overall it was the grow‐out methods that most influenced oyster characteristics. This was attributed to differences in the amount and magnitude of movement oysters experienced in the grow‐out methods, as recorded by motion sensors. This study demonstrates how grow‐out methods can be managed to achieve desired growth trajectories and therefore improve marketability among selective bred S. glomerata.     

The Effects of Tidal and Bottom Placement on the Growth, Survival and Fouling of the Eastern Oyster Crassostrea virginica

Oysters Crassostrea virginica in Georgia are naturally small and grow in clusters; however, it is more profitable to harvest large, single oysters. This study attempts to identify favorable tidal and bottom placements for the grow-out of large, single oysters in Georgia. Three bags, each containing 50 single oysters, were placed in four different tidal positions (subtidal on-bottom, subtidal off-bottom, intertidal on-bottom and intertidal off-bottom) at five sites in House Creek, Georgia. Measurements of oyster growth, survival and degree of oyster spat fouling were taken seasonally (every 3 mo). Oysters from on-bottom treatments exhibited significantly lower growth ( P = 0.0364 intertidal only), survival ( P = 0.0044) and degree of fouling ( P = 0.0154) than oysters from the intertidal off-bottom treatment. However, the oysters placed intertidally off-bottom were heavily fouled during the recruitment period. It may be necessary to sacrifice some growth and survival by culturing oysters intertidally on-bottom during the recruitment period in order to reduce the degree of fouling. During the non-recruitment period, placing oyster culture bags intertidally off-bottom maximizes growth and survival.     

Effect of environmental factors on the fatty acid profiles and physicochemical composition of oysters (Crassostrea gasar) in Amazon estuarine farming

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of environmental factors on the fatty acid profiles and physicochemical composition of Crassostrea gasar cultured in two locations with differences in salinity and precipitation gradients. The study period was divided into four seasonal divisions—the rainy–dry transition period, the dry season, dry–rainy transition and the rainy season. The salinity, pH and temperature were measured at each site during specimen collection. A total of 712 oyster samples were used for fatty acid profiling and physicochemical analysis. Salinity and precipitation were the environmental parameters that influenced the fatty acid profile and physicochemical characteristics of oysters. C. gasar exhibited excellent values of n3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (DHA, EPA and eicosatrienoic), with a predominance of these acids during periods of higher precipitation. Variations in precipitation and salinity resulted in significant differences in oyster nutritional characteristics. Oysters grown in Amazonian estuaries can be considered nutritious throughout the year, with better conditions during the rainy season.     

牡蛎养殖过程中副溶血弧菌与水质因子间的关系

为了研究牡蛎养殖过程中副溶血弧菌与水质因子之间的关系,2009年3月到11月从广东阳西某牡蛎养殖场采集牡蛎样品检测其副溶血弧菌的感染情况,并检测水体温度、盐度、pH和溶解氧。实验结果表明:副溶血弧菌总量的检出率为94.38%。水温和副溶血弧菌总量呈正相关,盐度和副溶血弧菌总量呈负相关,pH和溶解氧与副溶血弧菌总量的相关性不明显。对水温和盐度与副溶血弧菌总量的对数进行回归分析,水温和副溶血弧菌浓度的拟合回归方程为LgVP=0.093T-0.685(R2=0.336);盐度和副溶血弧菌浓度的拟合回归方程为LgVP=1.199+0.116S-0.004S2(R2=0.217);水温和盐度对副溶血弧菌浓度的拟合回归方程为LgVP=-1.941+0.116T+0.058S-0.001S2(R2=0.414)。研究结果可为牡蛎养殖过程中副溶血弧菌的风险分析提供参考依据。     

Aspects of oyster culture in Strangford Lough,Northern Ireland

The hypothesis that mixed culture of C. gigas and O. edulis accelerates growth in the latter is disproved. A comparative assessment of scallop culturing lanterns, imported from Japan, and traditional wood and plastic oyster trays demonstrated the superiority of lantern grown oysters. Oysters grown by this method had higher dry meat condition indices and higher levels of glycogen, protein and fat than those grown by other methods. The results obtained are attributed to a better flow of water through lanterns compared with the other tray types investigated. A cost analysis of the three culture methods demonstrated the economic feasibility of scallop lanterns for oyster cultivation.     

Quantitative measurement of reproductive output in the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin), using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)

Abstract. A quantitative gonadal index was developed for oysters, Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin. 1791), using polyclonal antibodies from eggs and sperm. Percoll used in the purification of oyster eggs and sperm greatly improved the purity of antigens compared to filtering the egg or sperm through a fine mesh only. The antigen-antibody reaction was tested with indirect sandwich ELISA using alkaline phosphatase-conjugated goat anti-rabbit igG as a secondary antibody. Rabbit anti-oyster egg IgG and anti-oyster sperm IgG initially exhibited a weak cross-reactivity over somatic tissue. Absoring with acetone-dried oyster tissue powder removed this cross-reactivity. Both antisera exhibited strong specific immunological reactions to oyster eggs or sperm respectively. The quantity of eggs or sperm was measured using ELISA and a quantitative gonadosomatic index (dry wt of egg or sperm/dry wt oyster) (GSI) calculated. GSI from ELISA correlated with gonadal stage measured histologically. Monthly mean GSI of female oysters was highest during late spring to early summer (0·157–0·201) and lowest during early winter to early spring (0·002-0·000). Maximum GSI observed during the study was 0·422 for female oysters and 0·446 for male oysters. Female oysters produce 3·7–65·4 million eggs, with an average of 21·1 million during each spawning. A positive correlation was observed between the number of eggs produced and oyster size; the number of eggs in the gonad increased as oyster size (i.e. total dry wt) increased (r= 0·67); however, the relationship was non-linear. Large oysters contained proportionally fewer eggs. Prevalence of Perkinsus marinus parasitism was high, 90–100%, during the study, as was weighted incidence, 1·33 to 2·67, No statistically significant correlation was observed between infection intensity and the per cent weight of oyster eggs or egg number.     

The feasibility of oyster raft culture in east coast estuaries

Styrofoam-floated oyster rafts were used to study the feasibility of raft culture in typical American east coast estuaries. Rafts were placed in Delaware Bay and several tidal tributaries in the state of Delaware. Four types of cultch were tested for resistance to the environment and utilization by setting spat. Hatchery-spawned oysters were reared on rafts and their growth and mortality were monitored. A special raft with moveable trays was designed to study the effectiveness of air drying in controlling fouling.Rafts withstood the environmental conditions in small tidal rivers but were severely damaged by waves in Delaware Bay. Although spat set was too low for commercial purposes in the rivers, sets approaching commercial density were obtained in the bay by putting bundles of strings on the oyster beds during setting. Oysters grown on rafts reached market size in approximately 2 years in two of the rivers: slower growth was noted in the other rivers. It was shown that fouling could be controlled effectively by air drying for 4 h each week.An economic analysis of raft culture for this area was conducted at the conclusion of the study, which showed that relatively high prices would be necessary to maintain a raft-based industry at this time.     

Effects of the winter Monsoon on the growth,mortality, and metabolism of adult oysters in Kinmen Island,Taiwan

The Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, is cultivated intertidally in Kinmen Island by both a traditional way of growing oysters on the surface of stone blocks, nicknamed “rock oysters”, and a recently introduced and more efficient way of hanging them in clusters on horizontal nylon lines, i.e. “hanging oysters”. We investigated the growth and mortality of both types of oysters from late July to early December 2003, and measured condition index (CI) and rates of oxygen consumption and ammonium excretion for the hanging oyster. Growth of oyster shells stopped in early October for the hanging oysters and early December for the rock oysters. Mortality rates were higher for hanging oysters than rock oysters. Hanging oyster's O/N ratio and CI, determined by a home-made CI meter that measured the volume of oyster's inner shell cavity with high precision, decreased significantly in October. Hanging oysters were apparently in poor physiological condition during the winter Monsoon, which is characterized by cold and persistently strong wind. On Kinmen Island the monsoon season begins in late September and is accompanied by declining seawater temperature and high seston loads in oyster farms. Chlorophyll a concentrations and seston food quality decreased significantly in early October after the winter Monsoon began. The hanging oyster's poor acclimation to the local climate was probably caused by the import of its spat from southwest coast of Taiwan where it is warmer than Kinmen Island in fall and winter. We recommend that oyster growers collect spat locally or from areas of similar climate.     

Growth, fatness and gross biochemical composition of the Japanese oyster, Crassostrea gigas, in Stanway cylinders in the Bay of Arcachon, France

A new method of oyster cultivation, the Stanway oyster cylinder, has been investigated in the Bay of Arcachon since 1989. A comparative study was carried out between the growth of spat and 18-month-old Crassostrea gigas oysters, in cylinders and in traditional bags. The growth in height and in whole weight was lower in cylinders. In contrast, the tests showed a better quality of the meat, with higher condition index and higher carbohydrate content, and a better quality of the shell, with higher density and better shape. Therefore, because of the improvement in oyster quality, the use of the cylinder seems to be advantageous for the Arcachon oyster industry.     

Changes in the distribution of epifaunal reefs and oysters during 130 years of dredging for oysters in Foveaux Strait,southern New Zealand

1. Foveaux Strait, a narrow seaway that is exposed to heavy wave action and strong tidal currents, has been the subject of an oyster fishery for over 130 years. Before the oyster fishery commenced the seafloor was extensively covered by epifaunal reefs that were tidally‐oriented, linear aggregations of patch reefs. 2. Patch reefs are formed by the bryozoan Cinctipora elegans cemented by encrusting bryozoa, ascidians, sponges, and polychaetes. The molluscan epifauna is dominated by the oyster, Tiostrea chilensis and bysally attached bivalves. Mortality of oysters is probably lower and recruitment and growth may be higher within the reef habitat. 3. Fishers found commercial densities of oysters occurred only on epifaunal reefs. Fishers exploited local groups of reefs. These groups form the patchily distributed oyster beds characteristic of this fishery. 4. Dredging for oysters progressively modified reefs until oysters were the only epifauna remaining. Dredges caught oysters more efficiently after the catch bag no longer became saturated with other epifauna. This heightened efficiency allowed fishers to rapidly reduce oyster density to commercial extinction. Oyster density has not rebuilt on oyster beds abandoned by fishers. 5. The rate of modification of epifaunal reefs was slower during the early years of the fishery but has accelerated, especially over the last 37 years. Frequency of disturbance increased as the numbers of vessels fishing grew and fishers developed speedier dredging methods. Intensity of disturbance also increased as heavier dredges were introduced and allowed focused fishing of reefs. 6. Oysters became reduced to low densities in the eastern and central areas that fishers then abandoned. The commercially exploited area subsequently expanded to the limits of Foveaux Strait. 7. With accelerated modification of oyster habitat, disease mortality has become more important. 8. Attempting to rebuild the fishery by oyster enhancement may be more successful conjoined with habitat restoration. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The impacts of aquacultured oysters, Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin, 1791) on water column nitrogen and sedimentation: results of a mesocosm study

To determine effects of aquacultured oysters Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin, 1791) on the overlying water column, a mesocosm study was performed at the Marine Ecosystem Research Laboratory (MERL) from June to October, 2000. The MERL facility is located adjacent to Narragansett Bay and consists of fourteen 13,000-l mesocosm tanks designed to simulate the Bay environmental conditions. Two hundred oysters (≈35 mm valve height; nominally filtering about 55 l/day/individual) were placed into three mesocosms, and three mesocosms were maintained without oysters as controls. Experiments were run with varying rates of water exchange in the tanks ranging from 0% to 100% per day (13,000 l/day). Parameters that were measured and compared between the two treatments included chlorophyll-a, particulate organic and inorganic matter, sedimentation, nitrate, ammonia, selected phytoplankton species and oyster growth rates. Oysters affected phytoplankton species composition and increased rates of sedimentation. Large diatoms were net sampled, and Nitzchia striata was predominant in mesocosms with oysters, while Skeletonema costatum dominated the control tanks. Ammonia excretion rates were determined for C. virginica using the salicylate–hypochlorite method. Ammonia excretion can be described by the allometric equation E=50.65w^0.699 when E is the ammonia excretion rate in μg/h, and w is the soft tissue dry weight in grams. Based on rates of ammonia excretion by oysters and observed steady states of ammonia and other forms of inorganic nitrogen in mesocosm tanks, it can be hypothesized that ammonia generated by oysters is taken up by rapidly regenerating phytoplankton in the water column.     

The Potential for Developing Controlled Breeding in the Chilean Oyster

International interest in the commercial aquaculture of the Chilean oyster, Tiostrea chilensis, is frustrated by an inability to artificially control their unusual breeding behaviour. The manipulation of breeding in this oyster will rely on a better understanding of its gametogenic cycle. Consequently, the gametogenesis of a wild population of highly fertile Chilean oysters from northern New Zealand was studied over three years to assess the potential for artificially controlling oyster breeding for aquaculture. The population was mostly comprised of simultaneous hermaphrodite oysters that generally followed annual cycles of gametogenesis. Oysters spawned as males throughout each year with increased spawning from November to February (ie., austral spring and summer). Ova were abundant throughout the year, although female spawning increased during spring. The unpredictable spawning of ova among individual oysters and the strong possibility of self-fertilization create difficulties for the development of controlled breeding in this species. If the full aquaculture potential of T. chilensis is to be realized, further research should be directed at identifying the factors involved in controlling female maturation, spawning and fertilization.     

Use of effluent water from fish-ponds as a food source for the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas Thunberg

Abstract. Growth rates, condition indices and diet composition of the Japanese oyster, Crassostrea gigas Thunberg, were studied in two types of ponds which form part of a fish-bivalve integrated culture system. Although abiotic parameters (e.g. temperature, salinity, pH, ammonia, particulate inorganic matter) were similar in the two pond types, oysters supplied with water from a sedimentation pond grew significantly faster and showed better condition indices than the oysters supplied with water from the PVC-lined ponds. It is suggested that the main reasons for the better performance of the oysters supplied with water from sedimentation pond water are: higher algal diversity, additional nutritious Food consisting of attached benthic diatoms and stable algal concentration.     

牡蛎营养功能制品研究进展

牡蛎作为营养功能制品的原料在国内外得到了广泛的认可和应用。介绍了我国牡蛎资源的分布特征和丰富的营养价值,结合国内外牡蛎综合利用的研究进展,探讨了我国牡蛎营养功能制品的发展趋势,提出了开展牡蛎净化、危害物质脱除、过敏源脱除、活性物质高效分离提纯等共性关键技术研究方向,为我国牡蛎制品乃至整个贝类产业的发展提供了一种全新的思路。