INLAND AQUACULTURE IN INDIA: PAST TREND,PRESENT STATUS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

ABSTRACT

In India, inland aquaculture has emerged as a fast-growing enterprise and a viable alternative to the declining capture fisheries. The present paper is an attempt to assess Indian inland aquaculture with respect to its resource base, output trends, systems and activities, yield gaps, adoption and impact on aquaculturists, economics, returns to inputs, investment needs, and future prospects. The paper is largely based on existing literature and observations made as part of an ICAR-WorldFish demand supply project. Indian aquaculture is primarily limited to inland sector and carp-oriented; for that reason, this activity received special attention. Freshwater aquaculture observed tremendous growth in the past 15 years, but immense scope still exists for horizontal expansion and increases in productivity (vertical expansion). This is evidenced by the fact that the average farm fish yield is only one-third of that achieved in farm trials. The difference was mainly due to much higher input use in on-farm trials. Most of the aquaculturists were practicing extensive aquaculture, but aquaculturists with semi-intensive operations benefited most from adoption of technology. The benefit:cost ratios for different systems of aquaculture varied between 1.22 to 1.86. The return to capital was much higher than the return to labor, due to the low labor input. The semi-intensive aquaculture system would receive the greatest return from projected macrolevel investments, followed by extensive and intensive systems. Dedicated efforts are needed to meet the demand for quality fish seed and feed in order to achieve the desired 45% increase in area and greater than 50% increase in productivity. Based on the observations, activities designed to foster inland aquacultural development in India are recommended.     

Grow-Out Production of Carps in India

ABSTRACT

Asian aquaculture has been contributing in great measure to the global fish basket. The Indian subcontinent, with a rich biodiversity of fish species, has emerged as an important aquaculture country, particularly in the freshwater environment. Carps form the mainstay of culture practices in the country, supported by a strong traditional knowledge base and scientific input in various aspects of biology, environment, nutrition, and health management. New species and culture systems, integration with other farming systems, use of organic material as nutrient inputs, and depuration measures in waste-fed culture systems are being considered for enhancing aquaculture productivity. This article presents the status of grow-out production of carps in India and traces the growth of the practices over the decades as well as the potential of the sector.     

Economic evaluation of mud crab farming under different production systems in India

Abstract

Apart from penaeid shrimp culture, crab farming and fattening and other several diversified aquaculture practices are now emerging as viable ventures in India. About 11 types of crab products are being exported from India with an average unit value realization of US$ 3.73 kg^?1, pinpointing its importance in the foreign exchange earnings. An economic evaluation of mud crab culture, fattening and fattening with composite culture of shrimp/finfish has been attempted in this paper. The major operating cost was that of seed and it was higher for crab fattening (87% of the total operating cost). Feed costs were very low compared to that of shrimp farming. Annual profit obtained was US$ 22812.5 ha^?1 year^?1 for culture and US$ 30820.8 ha^?1 year^?1 for fattening. Economic indicators such as net profit, rate of return, pay back period and breakeven price indicate that crab fattening/culture is much more profitable than any other coastal aquaculture operations currently in practice, provided hatchery production is established in the country to ensure adequate supply of mud crab seeds.     

The solution to pollution? The value and limitations of environmental economics in guiding aquaculture development

Abstract

The notable increase of aquaculture production in recent decades has in many instances been matched by growing concern for its impacts. Environmentalists, consumers and members of the general public are increasingly demanding to account for its resource use and to balance its proposed benefits with its environmental sustainability. Although conventional financial and economic analyses have demonstrated a broadly positive impact for many forms of aquaculture, including the more intensive resource‐demanding systems, the use of economic tools embracing wider measurements of social and environmental costs and benefits might provide different and possibly more critical perspectives. However, although these techniques hold promise for such analyses, their development and application in sectors such as aquaculture are as yet limited. This paper reviews the relevant issues, considers the tools and applications of environmental economics and proposes ways in which these may be more effectively be applied in strategic and local decision‐making for aquaculture development.     

Federal and state support for aquaculture development in the United States

Abstract

Despite a generally uniform federal support infrastructure, aquaculture development in individual states differs widely in the United States. Even among eastern coastal states with shared natural attributes, introduction of reared species and rates of development may differ noticeably. Aquaculture development reflects existing natural, human and physical capital resources and may be influenced by statutes, regulations and public support. One dimension of the existing and emerging industry support involves financial and development programs. This paper presents data on the structure and utilization of public financing programs and nonprofit economic development support by commercial marine and inland aquaculture enterprises in the United States and selected subdivisions. The research illustrates the scope and magnitude of public sector financial support in eight states; however, the costs and benefits of the public investment need to be carefully examined.     

Green grow the fishes‐oh? Environmental attributes in marketing aquaculture products

Abstract

The rise of aquaculture production in the last two decades has had a notable impact on many of the world's markets, sometimes supplementing or replacing existing capture fishery products, developing new market opportunities through improved availability, novel products and/or improved market chain efficiency. Meanwhile consumers have also become increasingly aware of environmental issues and associations with the products they consume; within this broader trend, the practices and possible impacts of aquaculture have justifiably or otherwise been subject to particular scrutiny and sometimes negative comment. Future opportunities and directions for growth and development of aquaculture may become increasingly driven by market perceptions of environmental attributes and, associated with this, the ways in which aquaculture processes and products are presented. This paper reviews the relevant issues of environmental attributes, explores the ways in which these may interact with future production and market trends and suggests critical emerging factors for the aquaculture sector.     

Sustainable commercial aquaculture: A survey of administrative procedures and legal frameworks

Abstract

Commercial aquaculture which, for this paper, is defined as the rearing of aquatic organisms that is profit oriented and primarily by the private sector, contributes to food security, directly by producing food fish, and indirectly by generating employment, and thus, income for the purchase of food. In addition, commercial aquaculture can be sustainable because it depends on private, rather than public funds that are usually lacking or scarce. The paper describes some enabling policies that are conducive to the promotion of commercial aquaculture. In particular it focuses on administrative and legal frameworks. The paper concludes that development of aquaculture can be enhanced by legislation specific to the sector rather than relying on general fisheries legislation; such a legislative framework (particularly for land‐based aquaculture) would resemble that of agriculture. Regulations require expensive and time‐consuming monitoring and enforcement; they should focus on environmental protection and a sustainable industry.     

An assessment of the economic contribution of EU aquaculture production and the influence of policies for its sustainable development

This review paper examines the structure of the EU aquaculture sector, the contribution it makes to the EU economy and the policy environment for past and future development. The primary analysis uses statistical data from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations which has been re-categorized according to species groups established by the European Aquaculture Technology and Innovation Platform (EATiP) and by culture system type using expert knowledge. Additional data sources for the analysis include the European Market Observatory for Fisheries and Aquaculture Products (EUMOFA) and the European Commission Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries. EU aquaculture production was 1.34 million tonnes in 2012 with a first sale value of €4.76 billion. Shellfish comprised 45 % by volume and 28 % by value; marine fish 30 % by volume and 53 % by value; and freshwater fish 25 % by volume and 19 % by value. The total production volume has actually fallen slightly from 1.4 million tonnes in 2000, whilst the value has increased significantly from 2.79 billion in 2000, mainly due to a growth in Atlantic salmon production. Five countries accounted for around 78 % of the direct output value of EU aquaculture in 2012, the UK, France, Greece, Italy and Spain. Around 50 % of the direct output value was generated using marine cage systems (28 % by volume), whilst less than 3 % of value was generated in recirculated aquaculture systems (<1.5 % by volume). Around 5 % of value was contributed by extensive to semi-intensive inland and coastal pond systems. STECF (2014) estimates there are between 14,000 and 15,000 aquaculture enterprises in the EU employing around 80,000 people, approximately 40,000 full-time equivalent (FTE). The greatest number of jobs (FTE) is provided by the freshwater pond and suspended shellfish sectors due to much lower productivity figures. This could be seen as a social benefit in rural and coastal regions, but corresponding low wages could also discourage young entrants to the industry and lead to dependency on migrant workers. Where efficiencies can be improved through capital investment there is likely to be significant scope for consolidation of ownership as can be observed in the marine fish sector. The output from aquaculture has to find a place within the wider fish and seafood market where volumes are generally inversely related to price. The potential growth of the sector is therefore constrained both in relation to the overall market and with respect to competition from substitute products. These include product from EU capture fisheries as well as imports from third countries (sourced from aquaculture and capture fisheries). Whilst interactions between individual products can be hard to demonstrate, any increase in production costs is likely to lead to lower output volumes, whilst improvements in production efficiency can lead to increased output volumes. With around 60 % of EU fish and seafood supply obtained through imports, and little prospect of increasing outputs from capture fisheries, EU policy is generally supportive of sustainable aquaculture development for reasons of food security and economic development. The underlying basis for this is maximizing the quality and health benefits of farmed products, whilst improving resource efficiency and minimizing impacts. This is expressed through funding support for research and technological development and structural funds to the fisheries and aquaculture industries. However, constraints to growth also exist in the form of regulatory barriers and costs that reduce industry competitiveness. Changing market requirements are also a factor. Prospects for growth have been assessed using the results of EATiP stakeholder workshops combined with the analysis of the sector by system type. These suggest an overall increase in production by 55 % is possible by 2030 based mainly on expansion of marine cage-based farming using larger systems in more exposed sites and similarly shellfish farming using larger-scale suspended systems. Expansion of recirculated aquaculture systems appears likely based on entrepreneurial and European policy for research and technological development activity, although constrained by currently low competitiveness.     

THE FARMING PRACTICES AND ECONOMICS OF AQUACULTURE IN THAILAND

ABSTRACT

The paper reviews freshwater and coastal aquaculture practices in Thailand, and compares the productivity, costs, and benefits across various types of cultivation and various intensities of production. The paper is based on data that were collected in surveys conducted during 1998–2001 by the Department of Fisheries (DOF), Thailand and the WorldFish Center. More than 22% of Thailand's fish supply comes from aquaculture, with coastal aquaculture accounting for more than 88% of this in terms of value. Intensive culture of shrimp is the dominant form of coastal aquaculture, occupying 69% of the area under production. However, in some regions, the average net profit/kg of intensive shrimp culture is negative, and semi-intensive farming, with relatively lower fixed investment and operating costs, delivers the highest rate of return on investment. On the coast, grouper and sea bass are the most important cage-cultivated species, achieving an economic rate of return as high as 92%. In the same environment, culture of mollusks, such as green mussels, oysters, and blood cockles, is widespread. It can also be economically sustainable, with relatively low capital and operating costs. Although the relative share of freshwater aquaculture production is declining, the level of output has been increasing rapidly. While the average production from monoculture of carnivorous species is higher than that from polyculture, the average capital investment and operating costs associated with the former are also higher. The expansion of freshwater polyculture and of mollusk culture in coastal areas would greatly assist poor fish farmers.     

Innovation in seafood value chains: the case of Norway

Abstract

This article provides econometric estimates of the determinants of collaboration in innovation processes and innovation outcomes in Norwegian aquaculture and other seafood sector firms, using linked innovation survey and register data on individual firms for the years 1990–2010. The seafood sector in Norway has an extensive innovation system and a high research and development (R&D) intensity, where public R&D institutions receive much of the funding. Our econometric estimates imply that firms with internal R&D resources collaborate more with external organizations in general, and research institutions in particular. Internal skills in the form of R&D employees and external collaboration with firms in the value chain have highly significant positive effects on innovation rates. Collaboration with R&D institutions has a smaller direct effect on innovation. Innovation is clustered at the beginning and end of the supply chain. Aquaculture input suppliers are highly innovative, while aquaculture farms mainly incorporate innovations from suppliers.     

Effect of information on attitudes towards offshore marine finfish aquaculture development in northern New England

Abstract

Social science can make important contributions to understanding the prospects for offshore marine aquaculture development because many of the potential barriers that may restrict its development are social and institutional rather than biological or technical. This study collects baseline data on attitudes towards offshore marine aquaculture held by a key stakeholder group. It also investigates the influence of information on attitudes towards marine aquaculture. Data reported in this study were collected from visitors to a seafood festival in coastal New Hampshire. The formal objectives of this research were to determine what effect, if any, two‐sided information on the potential advantages and disadvantages of marine aquaculture has on attitudes towards marine aquaculture and how prior familiarity with aquaculture moderates the effect of information. The findings from this study indicate that two‐sided information has a negative effect on attitudes, especially among individuals who are unsure of their level of familiarity with the issue.     

Microbial intervention for better fish health in aquaculture: the Indian scenario

Aquaculture has evolved as the fastest growing food-producing sector and developed as an important component in food security. To keep a sustainable growth pattern, health management strategies must go beyond antibiotics and chemotherapeutics, which create resistant bacteria and immunosuppression in the host. Besides development of drug resistant bacteria and pathogens, the adverse effect of antibiotics is caused by their influence on the aquatic microflora, and the retention of harmful residues in aquatic animals. On the other hand, the microbes with their unique structure and cell wall components can trigger immunity, and thus exposure plays an important role in the evolution. Microbial intervention through an environmentally friendly approach is an alternative method of health management. India is endowed with a bounty of varied climatic conditions, microbial diversity and fish fauna and aquaculture systems offering challenges in biological and environmental pursuits. Producing about 4.4% of world’s fish and ranking third in global fish production, India trades about 2.4% in global fish market with the annual export earning being over $1311 million. Use of microbes for beneficial purposes is increasingly recognized as a valuable input for sustainable and responsible aquaculture. Microbial intervention in aquaculture can be broadly water/environment based through bioaugmentation, biostimulation, biocontrol measures, or (to generate) host response through probiotics, immunostimulants, and vaccines. Also, application of molecular methods such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and nucleic acid techniques are making increasing inroads into aquatic microbiological research in India. This paper elucidates all these aspects of microbial intervention in aquaculture, high-lighting Indian research and accomplishments.     

Aquaculture in Egypt and issues for sustainable development

Abstract

Although aquaculture in Egypt has the potential for satisfying the increased demand for protein and has been experiencing unprecedented growth during the last decade, questions remain regarding the sustainable development of the industry. It is thus the objective of this article to review the current status and practices of the aquaculture industry in Egypt, highlighting the major issues confronting the sustainable development of the aquaculture industry.

Several issues are identified as limitations to future sustainable development, namely, production technology, fry supply, a feed industry sufficient to meet the demands of a growing aquaculture industry, and marketing and distribution systems necessary to accommodate the strong seasonal supply pattern. The article then concludes with a discussion of recommendations for alleviating these limitations.     

The use of information technology in aquaculture management

Abstract

The recent advances in information technology (IT) have had profound impacts on all walks of life and aquaculture is no exception. The growing importance of aquaculture as an alternative source of protein has further emphasized the need to adapt and develop advanced IT for the better management of aquaculture facilities as well as the regional planning for aquaculture development.

It is the objective of this paper to review the use and potential prospects of IT in aquaculture management. The information technologies considered are instrumentation and process control, data management, computerized models, decision support systems, artificial intelligence and expert systems, image processing and pattern recognition, geographical information systems, and information centres and networks. The review includes a brief introduction of each of the aforementioned technologies, followed by a survey of their current application as well as their potential use in aquaculture management.     

DISAGGREGATED ANALYSIS OF FISH SUPPLY,DEMAND, AND TRADE IN ASIA: BASELINE MODEL AND ESTIMATION STRATEGY

ABSTRACT

Quantitative modeling of fish supply, demand and trade is a useful tool for analyzing recent structural changes, such as the rapid development of aquaculture. Existing models are, however, limited by their use of highly aggregated fish categories and assumed (rather than estimated) elasticities. This paper outlines an estimation strategy and a multiproduct equilibrium model for disaggregated analysis of fish supply, demand, and trade. The model is composed of a producer, consumer and trade core, and is specified to accommodate special features of the fish sector. The estimation and modeling strategy also address common data problems, such as heterogeneity of fish types, diversity of production categories, and so forth. The model has been applied to nine major fish producers in developing Asia.     

Aquaculture and international trade

Abstract

In contrast to the stabilization or decline of wild fishery harvests, aquaculture's contribution to the world fish supply is steadily increasing. Aquaculture has begun to have a major influence on the trade of export‐orientated species such as salmon and shrimp. This paper reviews the role of aquaculture in international trade and the research which has been conducted to examine its influence. Despite the growing significance of aquaculture on international trade, especially for shrimp and salmon, formal analysis of the shrimp trade is sparse, only moderate for salmon, and essentially nonexistent for other species. This paper also presents specific examples of how aquaculture has played an important role in international trade. These include an examination of: (1) the influence of shrimp aquaculture and trade on the development of a shrimp futures contract; and (2) the countervailing duty and antidumping case against the Norwegian farmed salmon industry.     

Applied Nutrition in Freshwater Prawn,Macrobrachium rosenbergii,Culture

ABSTRACT

The freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, commonly called ‘scampi,’ is the most important culturable freshwater species of prawn with a fairly high growth rate, wide range of temperature (15-35°C) and salinity tolerance. The nutrients required by this species for growth and associated physiological functions are similar to those required by other crustaceans. Current data suggest that a digestible protein level of above 30 is required for maximum growth and protein efficiency. Ingredients such as mussel meat meal, squid meal, and shrimp meal serve as potential sources of protein in formulated diets. The complete quantitative requirements for all the essential amino acids for this prawn species have not yet been worked out. With respect to non-protein energy supply in the form of carbohydrate, studies indicated that scampi is capable of utilizing various carbohydrate sources efficiently. Dietary carbohydrate in the form of complex polysaccharides appears to be more effective as an energy source. Like other crustaceans, scampi also has limited ability to synthesize sterol from acetate and mevalonic acid. Quantitative estimates of the essential fatty acid requirements have been made in post-larval scampi. Data on vitamin and mineral requirements are scarce. Recent developments in diet formulation, practical feeding practices and the aquaculture potential in India have been indicated with emphasis on sustainable production.     

浙江滩涂贝类种业科技创新发展及展望

我国拥有1 512 300 hm²沿海滩涂,而滩涂贝类是潮间带滩涂的优势种类,具有生长快、适应性强、环境友好等诸多优点,因此发展滩涂贝类养殖空间广阔、条件优越、潜力巨大。浙江滩涂贝类养殖历史悠久,在养殖技术与模式、人工采苗与育苗、大规格苗种培育、新品种培育等方面具有明显特色和优势,同时在种业科技创新与发展方面面临巨大挑战。本文综述了浙江滩涂贝类养殖产业、苗种生产技术、种质创新与良种创制的历史与现状,围绕经济性状精准测评、育种技术创新、优质抗逆新品种培育、高效扩繁关键技术和装备研发、种业体系建设等方面,提出了未来特别是“十四五”期间滩涂养殖贝类良种创制与种业发展的重点任务。     

Assurance bonds: A tool for managing environmental costs in aquaculture

Abstract

The environmental costs associated with coastal aquaculture, though poorly understood, can in some cases be quite large. The presence of risk, uncertainty and insufficient monitoring can greatly reduce the power of traditional economic instruments such as environmental taxes and tradable permit systems to internalize these costs. Using the Texas shrimp farming industry as a specific example, this article explores the potential of environmental assurance bonds (EABs) as an alternative economic instrument to internalize environmental costs of aquaculture production under such conditions. Drawing from previous literature, an explicit distinction is made between two mechanisms simultaneously incorporated in the EAB: a deposit‐refund incentive and social insurance. The article discusses the role of each of these mechanisms in shifting the environmental costs of production back to firm. Practical application of EABs in the Texas coastal shrimp farming industry is then examined.     

The Potential and Sustainability of Aquaculture in India

ABSTRACT

India is a very populous country with more than one billion people. In order to provide food for this growing population, serious environmental problems may result. Despite many benefits from the green, blue, and silver revolutions adopted in India, there has been much concern resulting from intensive agricultural practices that led to environmental problems in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Increasing demand for aquatic resources also caused inland fisheries to decrease over the past few decades. The location of aquaculture projects, landscape destruction, soil and water pollution by pond effluents, over-exploitation of important fish stocks, depletion in biodiversity, conflicts over agriculture and aquaculture among various stakeholder groups over resource and space allocation, and international fish trade controversies have threatened the long-term sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture industries. The subject of sustainable aquaculture has not been adequately projected in terms of current aquaculture practices aimed to boost a rural economy. This review briefly describes the key issues of aquaculture unsustainability in terms of intensive aquaculture, nutrient enrichment syndrome, soil and groundwater salinization, destruction of mangroves, loss of biodiversity, marine pollution and loss of fish stock, use of aquachemicals and therapeutics, hormone residues, etc. The strategies for sustainability have been highlighted with respect to rice-cum-fish culture, carp polyculture, integrated farming with livestock, rural aquaculture, intensification of small farms, wastewater-fed aquaculture, crop rotation, probiotics, feed quality, socioeconomic considerations, environmental regulations and fisheries acts, transboundary aquatic ecosystems, impact of alien species, ethical aspects of intensive aquaculture, responsible fisheries, and environmental impact assessment. A suggested model outlines the feedback mechanisms for achieving long-term sustainability through improved farm management practices, integrated farming, use of selective aquachemicals and probiotics, conservation of natural resources, regulatory mechanism, and policy instruments.