Development of nursery culture techniques for the mud crab Scylla paramamosain (Estampador)

Cannibalism is one of the main causes of mortality in the culture of the mud crab Scylla paramamosain, particularly in the early post‐larval and juvenile stages when the densities of hatchery‐reared crabs may be very high before stocking into ponds or release into the wild for stock enhancement. In a series of experiments investigating cannibalism mitigation, the influence of stocking density, the effectiveness of sand substrate, brick and shell shelters and feed type were compared in culture of crabs from instar 1 for short nursery periods of 15–30 days. Inclusion of brick and shell shelters significantly increased survival over sand substrate alone. However, inclusion of shelters did not affect growth rates. In scaled‐up nursery production in lined‐ponds, with shelters, live Artemia biomass and fresh chopped shrimp or tilapia were found to be equally effective feeds for juvenile crabs stocked at a density of 70 m⁻² from instar 1 and grown for 30 days [52–66% survival, 21.6–24.6 mm carapace width (CW)]. In an extended nursery period for a further 30 days, crabs of 22 mm CW, stocked at 30 m⁻² in the same ponds, attained a final size of 34.5–36.2 mm CW with a survival of 64.3–67.0% using the same feeds.     

Effects of Stocking Density on Nursery Production and Economics of the Freshwater Prawn,Macrobrachium rosenbergii

ABSTRACT

In temperate regions, post-larvae freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, are grown to more advanced sizes in tanks prior to pond stocking. This intermediate stage of culture is referred to as the nursery period. Little research has been conducted on different management practices on juvenile prawn growth and survival during this 30-60 day period. Survival during the nursery stage has been highly variable and may be related to the cannibalistic behavior of juvenile freshwater prawn when cultured at high densities in the nursery. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of stocking density, relative to the provision of artificial substrate (number of prawns/m² of substrate), on growth, survival, and economic variables for freshwater prawn juveniles during nursery production. Post-larvae (0.01%0.00 g, n = 300) were stocked into nine 1900 L tanks, each provided with 20.5 m² of artificial substrate in the form of horizontal layers of black plastic mesh (10 mm) spaced 5 cm apart. Tanks were randomly assigned one of three prawn densities (215, 430, or 860 post-larvae/m² of substrate), which equated to 2.3,4.6 and 9.2 prawn/L, respectively. Juvenile prawn were fed a commercial trout diet (42% protein) at a percentage of body weight according to a feed rate table. Water quality was maintained using a flow rate of 8 L/min in each tank from a reservoir pond. Temperature was maintained at approximately 28°C using heat pumps. After 56 days there was no significant difference (P >0.05) in average weight of juvenile prawn stocked at the three densities (0 = 0.58%0.12 g, n = 9). Survival was significantly lower (P <0.05) for prawn stocked at 860 m² (62%) than in those stocked at 430/m² (78%) and 215/m² (94%), which were not statistically different (P >0.05). Even with reduced survival, the highest stocking density produced the greatest number of nursed juveniles based on both tank volume (5.5/l) and surface area (530/m²), at the lowest average cost.     

Nursery rearing of kalbasu, Labeo calbasu (Hamilton), at different stocking densities in outdoor concrete tanks

The growth and survival of kalbasu, Labeo calbasu, was evaluated at stocking densities of 5, 10 and 15 million spawn ha⁻¹ in nursery rearing in concrete tanks of 50 m², each for a period of 25 days. Survival of fry was density dependent and significantly higher (54.5%) at 5 million ha⁻¹ than those at 10 million ha⁻¹ (50.1%) and 15 million ha⁻¹ (46.9%). Similarly, growth and specific growth rate were inversely related to the stocking density and varied significantly among the three densities.     

Viability of a bottom‐set tray ocean nursery system for Holothuria scabra Jaeger 1833

Scaling up the hatchery production of juvenile sandfish Holothuria scabra is constrained by limited hatchery space and the associated high operational costs. To shorten the hatchery rearing phase, ocean nursery systems like floating hapa nets have been used with good prospects but with limitations during rough sea conditions. In this study, the potential of bottom‐set trays (0.14 m²) as an alternative ocean nursery system for early sandfish juveniles (0.5 ± 0.1 cm) was evaluated. The effects of stocking density and presence of artificial substrates (AS) on the growth and survival were determined in a 60‐day field experiment. Average length and growth rates at lower stocking density treatment (100 individuals tray^?1) were significantly higher (1.45 ± 0.22 cm; 0.03 ± 0.01 cm day^?1) than at higher stocking density treatments (400 and 500 individuals tray^?1) 0.95 ± 0.06 cm; 0.03 ± 0.004 cm day^?1) with or without AS (p < .05) respectively. The coefficient of variation in length (CV) at high stocking densities were significantly higher than at low densities (p < .05) and growth rate was strongly negatively correlated with density. Survival was significantly higher (55% ± 9%) in trays with AS across all stocking density treatments than in trays without AS (34% ± 2%). Results suggest that AS may have reduced intra‐ and interspecific interactions, resulting to significantly lower growth variations and higher survival. The bottom‐set tray with AS can be a practical alternative ocean nursery unit for rearing early sandfish juveniles particularly when the sea surface condition is rough. With improved design and density management, survival and growth may be further enhanced.     

Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone) post-larval survival related to age, temperature, pH and ammonium concentration

Transport of post‐larvae shrimp used in aquaculture is an important element of successful cultivation because of the potential for stress during stocking procedures. To find optimum transport conditions, several bioassays were performed in the laboratory to evaluate survival of whiteleg shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei 5–30‐day‐old postlarvae under conditions similar to those encountered during transport from the hatchery to nursery and shrimp ponds. Postlarvae were exposed for 4 h to different temperatures and pH levels ammonia concentrations. Survival was significantly reduced after a 4 h exposure to pH 9 and was inversely related to temperature with or without 7 mg L^?1 of ammonia. The 15‐ and 20‐day‐old postlarvae had higher survival rates than other ages. The lowest survival occurred in alkali conditions (pH 9), with 7 mg L^?1ammonia at 30 and 32°C. To assure optimal survival of postlarvae during transfer from the hatchery to the nursery and shrimp ponds, we recommend temperatures below 28°C, pH no higher than 8, no ammonia and post‐larval age at least 15 days.     

Effects of photoperiod and stocking density on survival,growth and physiological responses of narrow clawed crayfish (Astacus leptodactylus)

Photoperiod and stocking density are critical factors influencing the performance of decapod crustaceans in culture, however, their influence on growth; survival and biochemical physiology of crayfish broodstock have rarely been considered. Analysis of biochemical physiology in crayfish broodstock during the non‐breeding season provides information on the energy storage requirements of broodstock for increased survival and reproductive output. Growth rate, moulting frequency, survival and biochemical physiology were measured in Astacus leptodactylus broodstock that were cultured at three different photoperiods (18L:6D; 12L:12D; and 6L:18D) and three stocking densities (10, 20 and 40 individuals m^?2) during non‐breeding season. Survival of crayfish was highest at 18L:6D photophase and 10 m^?2 (100%) than other treatments. Survival in the high stocking density was high when combined with 18L:6D photophase, but weight gain (WG) and specific growth rate (SGR) were higher at shorter photophase and lower stocking density. Longer photophase (18L:6D) increased stress responses, characterized by increased haemolymph lactate and glucose levels. Stocking density did not affect proximate composition of crayfish; however, individuals cultured at 18L:6D photophase had higher lipid content than other photoperiod treatments. The study demonstrated that culturing A. leptodactylus at 18L:6D photophase and 10 m^?2 is critical for increased survival of broodstock.     

Effect of Stocking Density on Growth and Survival of the Rainbow Pearl Oyster <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pteria sterna</Emphasis> (Gould 1852) during Nursery and Late Culture in Bahía de La Paz,Baja California Sur,México

Growth and survival of the rainbow pearl oyster, Pteria sterna (Gould 1852), was evaluated in field culture at Bahía de La Paz, México. Mexican made Nestier^TM trays were used in nursery culture from March to July 1999 at four different stocking densities (25, 50, 75 and 100 individuals/tray). Late culture proceeded from July 1999 to March 2000 in sandwich nets and rail cages. Each artifact received 70 to 75 individuals. We studied the long-term effect of nursery culture stocking treatments. Growth patterns were examined using shell volume (height × width × depth, in cm³). Survival was estimated monthly. Growth and survival were acceptable regarding routine operations, but variations in this experiment depended on stocking density and type of late culture device. The interaction of density and culture device was significant for shell volume at the end of the experiment (F = 3614.14; p < 0.0001). Final shell volume depended on stocking density in nursery culture (F = 8.09, p < 0.001), but culture device had no influence (F = 0.76; p = 0.3). The results indicated that growth and survival in nursery culture were not proportionally related with stocking density. The change to late culture improved overall response. Advantages in growth were favorable for D50 C only. Rail cages promoted better survival than sandwich nets. Based on the natural behavior of P. sterna, the Optimal Stocking Density may be higher than the ranges tested in the present study. We recommend new strategies to improve the actual culture technology for P. sterna. A 3-dimensional culture unit might be an important advantage for this species regarding territorial exploitation and efficiency of spatial management in the production cycle.     

Extension of nursery culture of Scylla serrata (Forsskål) juveniles in net cages and ponds

To address the preference of mud crab farmers for larger size Scylla serrata juveniles (5.0–10 g body weight or BW; 3.0–5.0 cm internal carapace width or ICW), a study was conducted to compare the growth and survival of crab juveniles (2.0–5.0 g BW; 1.0–3.0 cm ICW) produced a month after stocking of megalopae in net cages when reared further in net cages installed in earthen ponds or when stocked directly in earthen ponds. In a 3 × 2 factorial experiment, three stocking densities (1, 3 and 5 ind m⁻²), two types of rearing units (net cages or earthen pond) were used. Megalopae were grown to juvenile stage for 30 days in net cages set inside a 4000 m² brackishwater pond and fed brown mussel (Modiolus metcalfei). Crab juveniles were then transferred to either net cages (mesh size of 1.0 mm) or earthen ponds at three stocking densities. After 1 month, no interaction between stocking density and rearing unit was detected so data were pooled for each stocking density and rearing unit. There were no significant differences in the growth or survival rate of crab juveniles across stocking density treatments. Regardless of stocking density, survival in net cages was higher (77.11±6.62%) than in ponds (40.41±3.59%). Growth, however, was significantly higher for crab juveniles reared in earthen ponds. The range of mean BW of 10.5–16.0 g and an ICW of 3.78–4.33 cm obtained are within the size range preferred by mud crab operators for stocking grow‐out ponds.     

Effect of Water Flow Rate and Stocking Density on Nursing Hatchery-Reared Juvenile Oysters,Crassostrea belcheri in a Semi-Closed Recirculation System

Juveniles of hatchery-reared oysters (Crassostrea belcheri) were grown in a semi-closed recirculation system at water flow rates of 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 l min^?1. Growth rate increased with increasing water flow rate (P < 0.05) over four weeks. No significant differences in survival were found among water flow rates (P > 0.05). Four stocking density treatments were compared: 4, 8, 12, and 16 juveniles cm^?2. Stocking density affected the growth of animals, with higher growth rates obtained at the lower densities. Optimum stocking density based on growth rate was obtained for oysters at 12 juveniles cm^?2. Survival of oysters declined with increasing density (P < 0.05) over four weeks. Among the treatments tested, a water flow rate of 4 l min^?1 and stocking density of 12 juveniles cm^?2 are suitable for nursing hatchery-reared juvenile oysters (C. belcheri) in a semi-closed recirculation system.     

Production of Nile Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus and Freshwater Prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii Stocked at Different Densities in Polyculture Systems in Brazil

Abstract.— The effect of stocking prawns Macrobrachium rosenbergii at increasing densities in ponds with Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus reared at low density was evaluated. Twelve 0.01-ha earthen ponds were stocked with 1 tilapia/m² and 0, 2, 4, or 6 postlarvae prawn/m². Three replicates were randomly assigned to each prawn density. Postlarval prawns were stocked a week prior to tilapia juveniles and both were harvested 175 d after the beginning of the experiment. Tilapia final average weight, survival, production, and food conversion rates did not differ significantly among treatments ( P > 0.05); the averages were 531 g, 67%. 3,673 kg/ha, and 1.91, respectively. Prawn survival rates did not differ for the three stocking densities (mean 90%). However, final weight and production were significantly different ( P < 0.05) as follows: 34.0, 23.0, and 14.7 g and 639, 909, and 818 kg/ha, respectively for 2. 4, and 6 prawns/m² densities. Stocking densities up to 6 prawn/m² did not affect tilapia production and required neither additional feeding nor significant changes in management. The polyculture system allowed an increase in total production with the same amount of supplied feed, thus improving the system sustainability.     

Holding wild caught red king crab,Paralithodes camtschaticus: effects of stocking density and feeding on survival and meat content

In this study, the effects of different stocking densities on survival, injury and meat content of captive male red king crab (mean weight = 2.6 kg) were examined. The first experiment was carried out in square plastic tanks with stocking densities of 100, 150 and 200 kg m^?3 for 56 days. In a second experiment, king crabs were kept at a stocking density of 60 kg m^?3 and were either fed or not fed. Both mortality and occurrence of injuries increased significantly with increasing stocking density. In the highest density groups, mortality and frequency of injury was 17% and 14% respectively, compared with 5% and 4% in the 150 kg m^?3 group. The percentage meat content was significantly lower at the final census compared with the initial census in all stocking density groups. In Experiment 2, there were no mortalities or injuries in either the fed or unfed treatments. The average percentage meat content increased in the fed treatment and decreased in the starved treatments. The results show that adult male king crab can maintain high survival rates at stocking densities up to 150 kg m^?3 in holding facilities of the design used in the present study for periods up to 2 months. However, to reduce mortality and frequency of injury over this period densities as low as 60 kg m^?3 and a holding system with a large bottom surface area are recommended.     

The Effect of Initial Stocking Density on Growth and Survival of Pike-perch Fingerlings Reared under Intensive Conditions

Pond-nursed pike-perch (Sander lucioperca) fry were trained to artificial diet and reared under controlled conditions maintained in aquaria using three stocking densities (1.25, 1.66 and 2.08 g/l). Two replicates per treatment were applied. The survival during the 4-week period of the experiment ranged from 44.2 to 49.6%. The majority of the losses were caused by cannibalism; only 8–14% could be attributed to natural mortality. Both cannibalism and natural mortality occurred in the first 2–3 weeks of rearing. The differences in the rate of cannibalism were independent of the stocking density. Natural mortality decreased with increasing density, consequently the highest survival was observed under the highest stocking density. Stocking density did not significantly influence growth, feed consumption and feed conversion ratio of the pike-perch fingerlings (p < 0.05).     

Density of brown trout, Salmo trutta L., and Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., parr after point and scatter stocking of fry

Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., and brown trout, Salmo trutta L., fry were point and scatter stocked in the early part of June at densities of 63–263 fry 100 m⁻² per species in the River Viantienjoki, a small river in northern Finland, and their population densities were assessed in late summer. Both species were always stocked together in similar quantities. Point stocking was used in the first 2 years and scatter stocking in the following 2 years. In point stocking, there was no correlation between the distance from the stocking sites (maximum = 250 m) and parr density in census sites ( r = −0.013 and 0.019 for brown trout and Atlantic salmon, respectively). The stocking density of fry did not influence parr density in August by either method or by species. Stocking density explained only from 11% to 23% of the parr survival depending on the species or stocking method. The mean densities of Atlantic salmon and brown trout parr did not differ significantly from each other at any fishing site ( P > 0.05). Both point and scatter stocking appear to be suitable methods for use in small rivers. The parr densities depend more on the other factors (e.g. habitat quality) than the stocking method, and the choice between methods could be based on the time and labour available.     

MALAYSIAN PRAWN CULTURE IN BRACKISH WATER PONDS IN LOUISIANA

Beginning on May 13, 1980, prawns were cultured at the Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge for 140 days from postlarvae and fed. Production in ponds receiving Ralston Purina Experimental Marine Ration #25 averaged 408 kg/ha, 619 kg/ha and 510 kg/ha for the respective replicated stocking densities of 2.5/m², 4.9/m² and 7.4/m². Average feed conversion factors were 1.0, 1.0 and 1.5. Average prawn weights at harvest decreased with increased stocking density and were 21 g, 17 g and 12 g, respectively. Production per pond ranged from 390 kg/ha to 832 kg/ha. An average of 77% of prawns stocked at 2.5/m² exceeded 115 mm TL whereas the stocking densities of 4.9/m² and 7.4/m² yielded only 32% and 31% over 115 mm. Extra postlarvae remaining after the stocking requirements for the feeding study were met permitting additional tests. Stocking rates selected for these additional studies were 1.2/m², 2.5/m² and 3.7/m². Prawns in these ponds received no supplemental feed and yielded harvests of 124 kg/ha, 224 kg/ha and 292 kg/ha, respectively. These treatments, the first two of which were not replicated, resulted in production similar to that of an earlier study of prawn production on natural forage in brackish ponds at this facility. Average prawn sizes at harvest were 18 g, 15 g and 12 g, and were inversely related to stocking densities.     

EFFECT OF POPULATION STRUCTURE AND DENSITY AT STOCKING ON PRODUCTION AND COMMERCIAL FEASIBILITY OF PRAWN (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) FARMING IN TEMPERATE CLIMATES1

During 1978–1980, 18 rearing trials were conducted in 0.25 ha ponds to examine the effects of various stocking strategies on production and economic potential. The strategies tested consisted of stocking: post-larvae only; a mixed population of postlarvae plus juveniles; small juveniles only, at densities ranging from 2.15–8.61 prawns/m². Prawns were fed Purina Marine Ration 25 once daily and seine-sampled at 4-week intervals throughout the 144–168 day rearing periods. Clear relationships between population structure of the stocked prawns and density versus crop yields and estimated revenues were demonstrated. The stocking of postlarvae resulted in lower production levels and less valuable prawns as compared to stocking a mixture of postlarvae + juveniles or juveniles only populations. Also, survival was more variable (range 59.3–84.5%) and lower (mean 69.6%) when postlarvae were stocked. Greater crop yields were achieved at higher densities, however, mean size and unit value of the crop decreased as density increased. Feed conversions were low and averaged 1.4 (range 0.8–2.2) for all trials combined. Preliminary economic feasibility analyses of the various stocking strategies were performed for situations where ponds and associated facilities were already available. The analyses suggested that positive net revenues were possible if a mixed population of postlarvae and juveniles or juveniles only were stocked at about 6.5/m² and seed costs were ∑30/1,000 and the crop was marketed as a combination of large whole.     

Experimental nursery culture of the mud crab <Emphasis Type="Italic">Scylla paramamosain</Emphasis> (Estampador) in China

For the improvement of nursery culture of the mud crab Scylla paramamosain, a special nursery facility was purposely designed and built. This facility consists of nursery ponds (areas of 20, 50, and 120 m², respectively) and a seed collecting pond connected to each nursery pond. There were 140 nursery facility units in operation for large-scale juvenile crab production. A series of experiments were carried out using the facility to investigate the effects of the age of megalopae, stocking density, and culture duration of both megalopae and first-stage crabs on the survival of megalopae and early juveniles of S. paramamosain. The results showed that when megalopae were stocked at a density between 3,000 and 5,000 ind m⁻² and reared to reach the first-stage crabs, a survival rate of up to 50% could be achieved. When the first-stage juvenile crabs were stocked at a density between 2,000 and 3,000 ind m⁻², their survival was more than 50% after 14 days of culture.     

Effects of Artificial Substrate and Stocking Density on the Nursery Production of Pacific White Shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei

Nursery production may be enhanced by the addition of artificial substrate to increase the surface area upon which shrimp graze and to serve as refuge. The objective of this study was to assess the effects of the artificial substrate, AquaMats^TM, on the performance of postlarval Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei stocked at three densities. Eighteen 230-L tanks were stocked with 10-d postlarvae (mean weight < 0.01 g). Six treatments were evaluated and consisted of shrimp stocked at three densities (778 shrimp/m², 1,167 shrimp/ m², and 1,556 shrimp/m²) with and without access to artificial substrate. Shrimp in all treatments received a commercial diet ad libitum . After 6 wk, shrimp were harvested from each nursery tank, counted, and batch weighed. Mean final weight, survival, production, feed conversion ratio, and water quality parameters were analyzed by 2-way ANOVA. There were highly significant ( P < 0.001) density and substrate effects on final weight, but there was no significant interaction effect. Final weight was 26.0, 17.4, and 34.5% greater in treatments with substrate than without substrate when stocked at 778, 1,167, and 1,556 shrimp/m², respectively. There was no significant density, substrate, or interaction effect on survival or water quality. Mean survival was ± 89.1% for all treatments. Increased shrimp growth in the presence of added substrate was likely due to the availability of attached particulate organic matter on the AquaMats^TM that served as an additional food source. Results from this study indicate that artificial substrate can be used to mitigate the potential negative effects of high stocking density on growth of L. vannamei in nursery systems.     

Intensive production of juvenile tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon: An evaluation of stocking density and artificial substrates

Tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon were intensively grown from PL₁₅ for 56 d in tank systems at stocking densities of 1000 and 2000 shrimp m^− 3, with and without the addition of artificial substrates (AquaMat® (buoyant and non-buoyant) and polyethylene mesh) at each density. Shrimp growth was significantly greater at the lower density and when substrates were added. Mean shrimp weight at harvest ranged from 0.64 ± 0.06 g (2000 shrimp m^− 3, no added substrate) to 1.17 ± 0.01 g (1000 shrimp m^− 3, added substrate). Survival was high and averaged 79.5 ± 2.7% across all treatments. The addition of substrates significantly increased survival at both stocking densities; however, survival was not significantly affected by stocking density. A maximum harvest density of 1645 shrimp m^− 3 and biomass of 1.27 kg m^− 3 were produced at a stocking density of 2000 m^− 3 with added substrates. Both harvest density and biomass significantly increased with stocking density and addition of substrates. The feed conversion ratio (FCR) of formulated feed was significantly lower when substrates were added. The results show that growth of P. monodon juveniles was inversely related to stocking density during intensive production. However, production output was significantly increased by addition of artificial substrates, which enhanced both growth and survival.     

Intensive Culture Potential of Penaeus vannamei

Tank and pond rearing studies were conducted to assess the potential for intensive culture of Penaeus vannamei in South Carolina. Postlarvae were stocked in intensive nursery tanks at 500/ m². Growth and survival were compared for shrimp reared in control fiberglass tanks and in tanks with artificial substrates (fiberglass screen). Addition of substrate improved survival (82% versus 58%), but not growth. Juvenile shrimp (mean weight, 1.3 g) from the nursery trial were stocked into 6 m diameter tanks at densities of 10, 20 and 40/m². Growth rate was inversely related to stocking density, with mean sizes of 33.9, 32.5, and 26.7 g attained at the low, medium, and high densities respectively after 168 days. At harvest, standing crop biomass averaged 225.6, 442.0, and 685.4 g/m² for the three densities. To further test the intensive culture potential, two 0.1 ha ponds were stocked with hatchery-reared postlarvae at densities of approximately 40 and 45/m². The ponds were managed intensively using paddlewheel aerators and water exchange averaging 16–17%/day. The ponds were harvested after 138 and 169 days and yielded 6,010 kg/ha of 16.7 g (mean weight) shrimp and 7,503 kg/ha of 17.9 g shrimp, respectively. Average production was 6,757 kg/ha with a food conversion of 2.51. These data suggest good potential for intensive pond culture of P. vannamei in South Carolina and other areas of the continental United States.     

Development of larval culture techniques for the shore crab, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Carcinus maenas</Emphasis> (L)

The shore crab Carcinus maenas is a commercially important species, utilised as sea angling bait as well as supporting a European-wide fishery. Hatchery production could provide an alternative source of bait crabs, alleviating potential competition between these sectors and environmental concerns regarding bait collection practices. A series of experiments were carried to investigate the potential for hatchery production, focusing on effects of dietary regimes and stocking densities through the zoeal stages and the influence of tank substrates and stocking density during the megalopa stage. Inclusion of the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis as live food for early larval stages conveyed no advantage in terms of survival or rate of development compared to a diet of Artemia nauplii. Increasing zoea stocking densities (from 94 to 557 l⁻¹) had a significantly negative effect upon survival to the megalopa stage (from 75% down to 47%), although this was off-set by a significant increase in production, with 260 megalopae⁻¹ produced from an initial density of 557 zoeae l⁻¹. The inclusion of substrates for megalopa stages had no impact on production or development rate, compared to tanks with no substrate. The completely benthic behaviour of megalopae indicates that tank floor area will be a limiting factor for crab production. Increasing stocking density of megalopae was found to significantly and negatively influence survival, although above 10,000 megalopae m⁻² the rate of decline in survival stabilised and maximum production (3,114 juveniles m⁻²) of juvenile crabs could be achieved at the highest stocking densities tested (40,000 m⁻²).