Eight emitters clogging characteristics and its suitability under on-site reclaimed water drip irrigation

Drip irrigation is the most effective and reliable method for reclaimed water irrigation. The water usually contains a lot of suspended particles, metal salt ions, organisms and microbial communities, which will enhance the possibility of emitter clogging or more complex clogging mechanism. Emitter clogging has become one of  the key problems to the application and popularization of the drip irrigation technology. In this paper, we selected four kinds of pressure-compensating emitters and four kinds of non-pressure-compensating emitters, and executed the experiment of drip irrigation with on-site reclaimed water treated with cyclic activated sludge system (CASS). The emitter discharge ratio variation (Dra), coefficient of uniformity (CU) and clogging rate distribution were analyzed to evaluate the emitter clogging characteristics after eliminating the effect of temperature and pressure on the emitter outflow by data correction. The results showed that Dra and CU varied in three periods as system operation. The beginning of experiment was the fluctuated balance period, Dra and CU recurrent fluctuated in 5 %, and the emitters clogged at some spots after the system run 36–48 h. Then the two parameters varied linearly in 60–108 h, tuning into the initiate linear period, as the non-pressure-compensating emitters got an obvious linear change than the pressure-compensating ones with the gradient changed from ?0.094 to 0.042 and ?0.073 to 0.047, respectively. Some of the emitters have a significant difference on these two parameters at this stage. After the restarting in the second year, Dra and CU decreased sharply. The maximum decrement was, respectively, 9.6 and 10.7 %. Then they varied in line with a greater slope degree as all emitters reached the significant level, the gradient ranges were ?0.176 to 0.115 and ?0.216 to 0.117, respectively. This stage was called the accelerated linear period. Seriously clogged and completely clogged emitters appeared, and both Dra and CU dropped down to 38.7 and 41.5 %. Various degrees of clogged emitters often emerged in the end part of lateral at first then propelled to the head gradually, the completely clogged emitters in the end accounted for more than 73.0 % when the system run 540 h. Comprehensively considered, the pressure-compensating emitters and cusp-shaped saw-tooth non-pressure-compensating emitters with short flow path are recommended in reclaimed water drip irrigation. These researches are aimed to provide references explaining the emitter clogging mechanism of reclaimed water drip irrigation as well as its technological application and popularization.     

Surface topographic characteristics of suspended particulates in reclaimed wastewater and effects on clogging in labyrinth drip irrigation emitters

Drip irrigation is the most effective and reliable method for reclaimed wastewater irrigation. Emitter clogging is the major problem for extending the drip irrigation technology. The existence of suspended particulates in irrigation water is the main reason for the emitter clogging. However, the reclaimed wastewater quality is extremely complex, and there is a series of physical, chemical, and biological reactions between suspended particulates and other materials contained such as microorganisms, which make the characteristics of suspended particulates in reclaimed wastewater complicated. In this paper, two types of widely used wastewaters treated with fluidized-bed reactor (FBR) and biological aerated filter (BAF) processes respectively were selected. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) technology and fractal theory were used to quantitatively describe the characteristics of the surface topography of suspended particulates. The results showed that the suspended particulates in two reclaimed wastewater were flocculent and porous. The pore system mainly consisted of solid suspended particulates, and most areas between the particulates were filled with microbes and extracellular polymers (EPS). The complex structure of biofilms was formed. That the biofilms grew and detached in irrigation system and deposited continuously at the inlet and outlet of labyrinth path was the major reason for the emitter clogging. The surface topography of suspended particulates in both reclaimed wastewaters showed fractal and multifractal characteristics, and the fractal dimension could not characterize the local and microsingularity of particulates but multifractal dimension could. The uniformity of the distribution of sediment pores increased with the size. Comparatively, the uniformity of suspended particulates in reclaimed wastewater treated by FBR was lower. With operation of reclaimed wastewater irrigation system, the average discharge of emitters decreased continuously with obvious fluctuations. The clogging degree of emitters was low during the first 256 h, and the clogging degree of the two types of reclaimed water was similar. But then, the degree of clogging increased greatly, and the FBR treatment on the emitters discharge were more obvious than BAF. It was closely related to the growth, detachments and sediment of biofilms in the irrigation system. Hence, using the reclaimed wastewater treated by BAF for drip irrigation is more suitable.     

化学离子对再生水滴灌灌水器堵塞的影响

为探究不同化学离子(Fe2+、Ca2+)对滴灌灌水器堵塞发生过程的影响及堵塞机制,以二级处理再生水和地下水为水源,选取标称流量为1.1~1.8L/h的4种灌水器进行灌水器堵塞试验。试验中每天灌水12h,定期测定灌水器流量,试验结束后测定灌水器生物膜干重及胞外多聚物EPS重量。结果表明:化学离子改变生物膜的形成过程和结构稳定性,增加了堵塞物质的形成和生长速度;向地下水加入Fe2+增大灌水器发生生物化学堵塞的风险,地下水同时加入Fe2+、Ca2+,灌水器以化学堵塞为主;再生水加入Ca2+提高了灌水器化学堵塞风险,加入Fe2+或同时加入Fe2+、Ca2+增加了发生生物化学堵塞的风险。     

Effects of average velocity on the growth and surface topography of biofilms attached to the reclaimed wastewater drip irrigation system laterals

Emitter clogging, a phenomenon commonly seen in reclaimed wastewater drip irrigation systems, is a severe obstacle to the wide applications and popularization of the irrigation technology. Some experiments showed that the emitter clogging was tightly related to biofilms formation attached to the irrigation system. In this paper, two types of wastewaters reclaimed respectively by fluidized-bed reactor (FBR) process and biological aerated filter (BAF) process were chosen as the experiment objects and then the effects of the average velocity on the growth and topography of biofilms attached to the irrigation laterals were studied. The parameters of biofilms reached their maximal values at a critical velocity of 0.45 m/s. The formation of biofilms was primarily controlled by the transport of the nutrients and suspended particles within the laterals when the average velocity is below the critical velocity, whereas it was primarily controlled by the hydraulic shear force when above the critical velocity. The main mechanism for emitter clogging was that the biofilms detached from laterals accumulated and grew at the inlets and outlets of emitters. A similar variation pattern was observed for both reclaimed wastewaters. However, the growth of biofilms for BAF process was more affected by the shear force than that for FBR process, since the nutrients and suspended particles for BAF were larger than those for FBR.     

浑水泥沙粒径与含沙量对迷宫流道堵塞的影响

为客观评价浑水中泥沙特性对滴头流道堵塞的影响以及合理选择滴灌水质处理方法,采用L9（34）的正交试验设计方法,进行了浑水间歇灌水测试,并提出了以滴头平均相对流量和灌水均匀度系数作为基本参数的滴头堵塞程度综合评价方法,比较分析了压力、含沙量以及泥沙粒径等变化对滴头堵塞比例和堵塞程度的影响规律.研究结果表明：对于粒径小于0.1 mm的泥沙颗粒,工作压力对流道堵塞的影响非常显著,其次为泥沙粒径;滴头堵塞程度的大小是由粒径、含沙量、工作压力三者相互耦合作用引起的,且相互之间不存在单调相关关系.在实际灌水过程中,当灌溉水中含有较多小于0.1 mm的泥沙颗粒时,应尽量滤除粒径小于0.048 mm的颗粒,并可加入分散剂,阻止细小黏粒的团聚絮凝作用,以提高滴头抗堵塞能力.     

滴灌系统灌水器堵塞及防堵措施研究进展

滴灌系统灌水器堵塞一直是制约滴灌技术应用推广的关键问题,为探索预防、解决该问题的方法,首先,从灌溉水源、灌水器流道结构、滴灌系统运行方式等方面总结了灌水器堵塞类型,论述了该领域的研究成果;其次,通过控制水源处理、配置合适过滤设备、改进灌水器流道、选用较优系统运行方案等方式提高灌水器抗堵塞性能,提出进一步研究发展灌水器堵塞防治新技术;最后,讨论了目前研究中存在的问题及下一步研究建议,为更好地防治灌水器堵塞问题提供新思路。      

引黄滴灌水源中泥沙表面附生生物膜的分形特征

为了解决灌水器堵塞这个制约引黄滴灌技术应用和推广的关键问题,联合运用扫描电镜测试法和分形理论对黄河泥沙颗粒表面形貌进行了分析,结果表明:黄河泥沙颗粒表面形貌表现为以固体颗粒、微生物及其分泌的黏性胞外聚合物形成的复杂生物膜结构.黄河泥沙颗粒表面具有显著的分形和多重分形特征,简单分形维数虽然能从整体上表征颗粒物表面形貌的复杂性与不规则性,但未能刻画颗粒物局部奇异性的微观特征,而多重分形谱可以定量描述这种复杂泥沙颗粒形貌特征.黄河泥沙借助其巨大的表面积,吸附了大量的微生物,微生物分泌的胞外聚合物质量浓度高达276.08~360.68 mg/L,这就要求在控制引黄滴灌系统灌水器堵塞时,需要从以往单纯考虑泥沙颗粒物本身转变为综合考虑泥沙颗粒和微生物的耦合作用,寻求更为有效的堵塞控制策略.     

浑水特性与水温对滴头抗堵塞性能的影响

为探明迷宫流道滴头发生物理堵塞的成因及过程,采用分段粒径浑水周期间歇滴灌的试验方法,分别对含沙量、泥沙颗粒粒径和水温对滴头堵塞发生过程的影响进行研究。结果表明:对于泥沙颗粒粒径小于0.1 mm的浑水滴灌而言,粒径越小越易造成滴头堵塞,且其堵塞程度随浑水含沙量的升高而急剧升高;存在造成滴头堵塞的敏感粒径范围,在夏季灌溉时小于0.031 mm的粒径为易堵塞粒径;水温是影响滴头堵塞的重要因素,水温越高滴头的抗物理堵塞性能越好。     

Effect of flushing frequency on emitter clogging in microirrigation with effluents

Flushing is an important maintenance task that removes accumulated particles in microirrigation laterals that can help to reduce clogging problems. The effect of three dripline flushing frequency treatments (no flushing, one flushing at the end of each irrigation period, and a monthly flushing during the irrigation period) was studied in surface and subsurface drip irrigation systems that operated using a wastewater treatment plant effluent for three irrigation periods of 540 h each. The irrigation systems had two different emitters, one pressure compensating and the other not, both molded and welded onto the interior dripline wall, placed in laterals 87 m long. Dripline flow of the pressure compensating emitter increased 8% over time, while in the nonpressure compensating emitter, dripline flow increased 25% in the surface driplines and decreased 3% in the subsurface driplines by the emitter clogging. Emitter clogging was affected primarily by the interactions between emitter location, emitter type, and flushing frequency treatment. The number of completely clogged emitters was affected by the interaction between irrigation system and emitter type. There was an average of 3.7% less totally clogged emitters in flushed surface driplines with the pressure compensating emitter as compared to flushed subsurface laterals with the nonpressure compensating emitter.     

不同水质条件下灌水器抗堵塞性能研究

研究不同含沙水滴灌条件下,随着灌水次数的增加滴灌管(带)的堵塞情况;灌水器出流及淤积在滴灌管(带)管腔内的泥沙含量和粒径组成。经过多次灌水试验,试验结果表明:经过11次灌水试验,D120水质情况下滴灌管(带)堵塞情况好于S120;S100和D75水质情况下,经过相同次数的灌水试验,4条滴灌管(带)堵塞灌水器个数及位置相同;S80和D75水质情况下,虽然D75水质下灌水次数多,但4种滴灌管(带)抗堵塞性能明显要好于S80水质情况下;不同水质情况下4条滴灌管(带)的前60 m,管腔内泥沙淤积量很小,70~90 m处泥沙淤积量则不同程度的增加,淤积在管腔内的泥沙中值粒径D50最大值出现在60~90 m。     

再生水条件下灌水器内生物膜生长对流量的影响

选用生物泳动床、生物滤池两种污水处理工艺下的再生水进行滴灌试验,研究灌水器内生物膜的生长情况。结果表明:灌水器内的生物膜经历附着期、生长期和成熟期,在成熟期达到动态平衡状态;灌水器进水口处的生物膜附着快、生长速度快,生物膜最厚。脱落的生物膜沉积于流道内或出水口,体现流量的变化。灌水器的平均流量变化落后于生物膜的生长变化;当生物膜到达成熟期时,生物膜反复脱落生长,是灌水器堵塞的高风险期,表现为灌水器的平均流量持续下降。系统运行184 h后,可采用加酸、加氯等措施冲洗滴灌灌水器。     

Influence of fine particle size and concentration on the clogging of labyrinth emitters

The evolution of drip emitter clogging with labyrinth channel was investigated experimentally to study the fine particle size and concentration effects in the irrigation water. Short-term clogging tests were performed using muddy water containing particles with 8 different sizes (all less than 0.1 mm). The particles used in this study were composed of fine sands, slit and clay. Afterwards, verification tests were conducted to prove the results obtained from short-term clogging tests. The impacts of particle size and particle concentration in muddy water on emitter clogging were analyzed by means of calculating the mean discharge and the Christiansen uniformity coefficient. The results showed that for particles that were smaller than 0.1 mm in diameter, sediment concentration significantly affected clogging. The clogging level of emitters increased with raising the concentration. Especially when the sediment concentration was higher than 1.25 g/L, the impacts became remarkable. On the other hand, the sensitive sediment particle range that could get emitters clogged easily was found. In this study, the sensitive particle range were D6 (0.038–0.034 mm) and D7 (0.034–0.031 mm) The results aim to help in improving drip irrigation methods using water with high sediment concentration and providing experimental data for optimization design of emitter channel.     

含沙水滴灌条件下灌水器抗堵塞试验研究

对4种不同滴灌管(带)在含沙水滴灌条件下灌水器的出流量变化及淤积堵塞情况进行了田间试验研究。经过多次灌水试验,结果表明,4种滴灌管(带)灌水器出流量均随灌水次数的增加和距离毛管进水口长度的增加呈减小趋势,最后完全堵塞的灌水器均发生在毛管的末端;在相同水质和灌水压力下,大流量灌水器抗堵塞性能较好,即大流道灌水器的抗堵塞性能优于小流道灌水器;随着灌水次数的增加在滴灌管(带)的管腔内有细小泥沙淤积,小流量滴灌管(带)在70～80 m处泥沙淤积量骤然增加,大流量滴灌管(带)在80～90 m处骤然增加,管内泥沙的沉积大大增加了灌水器的堵塞几率,因此定期对滴灌带进行冲洗可以有效减小堵塞。     

温室水肥滴灌系统迷宫式灌水器堵塞试验

为探明温室滴灌灌水器堵塞的影响因素及机理,研究了灌水量和施肥量对灌水器堵塞的影响,并利用场发射扫描电镜分析了灌水器内的堵塞物质。结果表明,灌水器平均流量随着灌水量和施肥量的增加呈下降趋势,下降幅度在1.51%~14.16%之间。方差分析表明施肥量对灌水器平均流量的影响达到极显著水平(P0.01)。解剖灌水器后发现堵塞物质多沉积在流道前部。堵塞物质主要由生料带残渣、微小沙粒和白色粉末状化学沉淀物组成,其中白色粉末主要由钙、镁、碳、氧、磷元素等组成。说明本试验中灌水器堵塞主要是由物理堵塞和化学堵塞共同作用引起的。     

新型微压滴灌灌水器水力性能试验研究

在试验室内,对研制的微压灌水器进行了水力性能试验。试验结果表明:在微压(2~5 m)工作时,新型微压滴灌灌水器在自由出流状态下的出流规律符合设计要求;在工作压力范围内,微压灌水器的流量稳定,变化小;新型微压滴灌灌水器在连续工作1周后流量略有变化,出流更加均匀;微压滴灌灌水器抗堵塞能力强,性能可靠。     

Control of emitter clogging in drip irrigation with reclaimed wastewater

Summary Experiments were carried out to evaluate the performance of various types of drip irrigation emitters, widely used in Israel, using waste water from a storage reservoir. Fine particulate matter agglomerated by microbial by-products and in-line developed biomass were the principal clogging agents. Clogging fluctuated, increased as water quality deteriorated and decreased when it improved. There were definable differences between emitters of various types as to their clogging susceptibility which were not directly correlated with differences in emitter flow-rate, although, for any particular type, the emitter with smaller discharge was always more sensitive to clogging. The clogging process generally started with emitters located at the far end of the lateral and partial emitter clogging was more common than complete plugging. Overflow was also found in most emitter types and was more common in regulated emitters. Reliable long term operation of most emitter types was achieved with filtration at 80 mesh (180 m opening) combined with daily chlorination and bimonthly lateral flushing. Regular lateral discharge monitoring was found to be a convenient way to detect the initiation of the clogging process. Chlorination was most efficient when applied before the emitters became massively clogged.     

Assessment of emitter discharge in microirrigation system as affected by polluted water

A drip irrigation system has the advantage of maintaining high water content near the plant root. However, its performance depends on water quality as it may induce the emitter clogging. In the Tohaku National Irrigation Project, in western Japan, mist spray emitters are widely used for irrigation in the field and greenhouses for vegetable and orchard crops. Seven emitters of different types were evaluated for the variation in their discharge rate without filter. The statistical analysis of mean discharge ratio and the coefficient of variation of the performance of emitters along a lateral line in the field indicated that the mist spray emitters had the best performance for irrigation in Tohaku area, particularly the new emitters or 1-year old emitters. The results suggest that after using the emitter line for two irrigation seasons it should either be replaced in the third season or washed carefully if further used.     

中水微灌系统生物堵塞特性探讨

使用中水微灌作为缓解农业水资源危机的一种灌溉方式，可以将污水灌溉对环境和农作物造成的污染减轻到最小，但中水微灌溉将会加大灌溉系统堵塞的可能性。通过对造成中水微灌系统生物堵塞的水质、堵塞原因及堵塞的严重程度的分析认为，中水中的有机污染物和微生物会造成微灌系统的堵塞，但中水中的无机颗粒是造成灌水器堵塞的首要原因。微灌系统的堵塞取决于污水的处理工艺及中水水质标准，其中主要与灌溉水的pH值，TSS和BOD5等参数有关，这3个水质参数可以用来对微灌系统的堵塞的危险性进行评估。对于微灌系统堵塞问题，可以通过改善水质，合理配置过滤设备及使用大流量灌水器和具有自冲洗功能的灌水器等方法来解决。     

波动水压滴灌系统设计与实验分析

针对恒压条件下灌溉系统容易堵塞和在堵塞条件下灌水器均匀度低的弊端,基于可编程控制器PLC和变频器控制技术,提出了一种波动水压灌溉系统。采用正交实验设计方法,取基准水压、波动周期和波幅3个波动参数为因素,设计灌水器在波动水压条件下的水力性能实验。实验结果表明,在正弦波动模式下,基准水压和波幅对灌水器平均流量和抗堵塞性能影响较大,合理的基准水压和波幅组合可以提高灌水器在堵塞条件下的平均流量和抗堵塞性能;而振动周期对灌水器均匀度的影响最为显著;通过对实验数据的线性回归,建立了基于波动参数的平均流量计算表达式,为波动水压滴灌实际应用提供了设计依据。